|
|
- Caveen, A.J., Gray, T.S., Stead, S.M., and Polunin, N.V.C. MPA policy: What lies behind the science? Marine Policy 37: 3-10, 2013.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
What the current policy debate on marine protected areas (MPAs) and marine reserves (MRs) has failed to address is the fact that protection of the marine environment has as much to do with scientists, and others values as it has to do with science. To date natural science has played a dominant role in the implementation of MPAs, yet normative considerations which are embedded in the way scientists and the wider community think about the condition the marine environment should be in, and which may influence decision-making, are rarely acknowledged or discussed. This paper seeks to correct that deficiency by investigating the values that lie behind the natural science of MPAs. With the aid of epistemic community, advocacy coalition and discourse coalition theories of policy networks, this article explores the role science and scientists have played in influencing policy on MPAs at the global and national level, and looks at the extent to which normative conceptualisations within and beyond natural science have influenced the debate.
- Kearney, R., Farebrother, G., Buxton, C.D., and Goodsell, P. How terrestrial management concepts have led to unrealistic expectations of marine protected areas. Marine Policy 38: 304-311, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Terrestrial reserves and national parks have taken many forms and they continue to be directed toward variable and often imprecisely defined outcomes. A prominent contemporary focus is to pursue the continuance of biodiversity. To this aim the concept of protecting comprehensive, effectively managed and representative areas from overt development, such as urban sprawl and agriculture, has been globally adopted. Within Australia 'effectively managed', has been replaced by 'adequate', a poorly defined term which is interpreted optimistically and combined with 'comprehensive' and 'representative' to create the CAR principle. This principle was first developed within the Australian forestry sector to guide management in addressing a very specific threat to a clearly identified component of biodiversity in limited and well defined areas; the preservation of declining stands of some tree species within limited old growth forests. Even though the CAR principle is central to Australia's process of developing a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) its relevance to marine systems has not been demonstrated. Its efficacy for the conservation of marine environments is questioned. The uncritical transposition of terrestrial management paradigms, including the CAR principle, to the marine realm has misled marine management. It is argued that disproportionate commitment to terrestrial principles, including CAR, and unjustified advocacy for MPAs generally have biased public perception and management efforts to the detriment of effective marine conservation and sustainable use of marine resources.
- Stevenson, T.C. and Tissot, B.N. Evaluating marine protected areas for managing marine resource conflict in Hawaii. Marine Policy 39: 215-223, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Conflict surrounding commercial fisheries is a common phenomenon when diverse stakeholders are involved. Harvesting reef fish for the global ornamental fish trade has provoked conflict since the late 1970s in the State of Hawaii. Two decades later the state of Hawaii established a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) on the west coast of the island of Hawaii ('West Hawaii') to protect and enhance the fish resources and alleviate conflict between stakeholders, principally between commercial dive tour operators and aquarium fishers. The perceptions held by these stakeholders on West Hawaii and Maui were evaluated to understand how MPAs influenced conflict dimensions, as the former location had a well-established MPA network designed to alleviate conflict, while the latter did not. This was accomplished by analyzing the following questions: (1) perceptions about the effectiveness of MPAs to alleviate conflict and enhance reef fish; (2) perceived group encounters and threats to coral reefs; (3) willingness to encourage fishing; and (4) value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade. The results indicate the MPAs in West Hawaii were moderately effective for alleviating conflict, encounters between stakeholders occurred on both islands, dive operators strongly opposed commercial fishing and perceived aquarium fishing as a serious threat to the coral reef ecosystem, and polarized value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade confirms pervasive social values conflict. The conflict between these groups was also asymmetrical. MPAs are inadequate for resolving long term conflict between groups who hold highly dissimilar value orientations toward the use of marine resources. Future marine spatial planning and MPA setting processes should include stakeholder value and conflict assessments to avoid and manage tensions between competing user groups.
- Chuenpagdee, R., Pascual-Fernández, J.J., Szeliánszky, E., Alegret, J.L., Fraga, J., and Jentoft, S. Marine protected areas: Re-thinking their inception. Marine Policy 39: 234-240, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
When marine protected areas (MPAs) do not succeed, which is often the case, their failure is mostly attributed to factors related to their design and operation. In this paper, it is argued that reasons for lack of success must be sought in the process that leads up to their establishment, i.e., the initial stage when the idea was conceived, communicated, and discussed among stakeholders. To illustrate the significance of the 'step zero', the creation of four MPAs in Spain and México is analyzed. These case studies show how MPA proposals can easily be drawn not only into power struggles between stakeholders but also into political issues that extend far beyond the MPA itself. For this reason, the governance of MPAs requires broad considerations of the potential political risks and pitfalls. MPAs are, after all, not just a technical management measure, but a socio-political enterprise.
- Abecasis, R.C., Longnecker, N., Schmidt, L., and Clifton, J. Marine conservation in remote small island settings: Factors influencing marine protected area establishment in the Azores. Marine Policy 40: 1-9, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
This paper examines the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) in remote small island settings with specific reference to the Portuguese island of Corvo in the Azores. This case study represents different approaches to marine conservation, ranging from an informal community-based no-take MPA to a government-driven multi-purpose natural park, involving diverse local and external actors interacting over an extended period of time. In-depth interviews were used to explore the perceptions of local and expert stakeholders about positive and negative aspects of MPA establishment. This demonstrated how differing approaches have led to varying degrees of MPA effectiveness. From the community-based MPA, several key ingredients for effective MPA establishment were identified, including engaging and empowering local communities, clear definition of goals, visible MPA outputs and community enforcement based on high levels of support and peer group pressure. However, in a context of complex marine resource use, the limitations of community-based initiatives prevent them from achieving broad ecosystem conservation goals. These might be better achieved through government-driven MPAs, provided that they are integrated in a wider regional marine strategy and that there is political will to effectively implement conservation measures and to allocate resources for management, enforcement and monitoring.
- Lascelles, B.G., Langham, G.M., Ronconi, R.A., and Reid, J.B. From hotspots to site protection: identifying Marine Protected Areas for seabirds around the globe. Biological Conservation 156: 5-14, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are recognised as a key component of an ecosystem-based approach to managing the marine environment more effectively and sustainably. Marine top predators, such as seabirds, may be used to identify and prioritize sites for marine conservation. Here we highlight the important role that seabird scientists can play in identifying candidate sites for MPAs; areas identified using at-sea surveys, seabird tracking, and species-habitat modelling. Prioritization of species and sites needs knowledge of ecological and habitat dynamics, threats and important areas at key stages of annual and life-cycle. The results need to be interpreted within the context of relevant policy mechanisms and agreements. The size and shape of candidate MPAs should be: (a) realistic for the key species and systems involved; (b) easy to monitor and enforce; and (c) where feasible involve reasonably long-term data sets. Designation of MPAs by relevant authorities and organisations will require effective advocacy (at local, national and international levels) and must be based on robust and defensible science. Site boundaries should also be sufficient flexibility to be modified, if necessary, in the light of future experience and data collection. The effectiveness of MPAs at the scale required for seabird conservation will need to build on existing experience and develop innovative, as well as traditional, marine spatial planning, monitoring and management techniques. To achieve this within the target time-frames outlined in a number of policy mechanisms will require the rapid development of new approaches, resources and partnerships.
- Tancell, C., Phillips, R.A., Xavier, J.C., Tarling, G.A., and Sutherland, W.J. Comparison of methods for determining key marine areas from tracking data. Marine Biology 160(1): 15-26, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
There is an urgent need to identify key marine areas for conservation, particularly in the high seas. A range of techniques have been applied to tracking data from higher predators, particularly seabirds and pinnipeds, to determine the areas of greatest use. This study compared three commonly used methods – kernel, first-passage time and state-space modelling – and a new approach, minimum displacement rate, for the analysis of data from the wandering albatross Diomedea exulans of Bird Island, South Georgia, tracked during the chick-rearing period. Applied to a single track, these four models identified similar marine areas as important. The greatest similarity in areas identified occurred when model assumptions were shared (such as slow speed indicating spatial preference) even when methods modelled these assumptions differently (e.g. Bayesian inference versus cumulative density surface). A gridded overlap approach applied to all tracks revealed core areas not apparent from results of any single analysis. The gridded approach also revealed spatial overlap between methods based on different assumptions (e.g. minimum displacement rate and kernel analysis) and between individuals. Although areas identified as important by kernel and first-passage time analysis of a single track were biased towards resting locations during darkness, this does not negate the requirement for their protection. Using the gridded overlap approach, two distinct core regions were identified for the wandering albatross; one close to the breeding colony and another 800 km to the North-West in the high seas. This convenient and pragmatic approach could be applied to large data sets and across species for the identification of a network of candidate marine protected areas in coastal and pelagic waters.
- Sponaugle, S., Walter, K., Grorud-Colvert, K., and Paddack, M. Influence of marine reserves on reef fish recruitment in the upper Florida Keys. Coral Reefs 31(3): 641-652, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Coral reef fish recruitment to the upper Florida Keys was monitored monthly for 7 years (2003–2009) to establish a baseline and test whether recruitment varied between reserve and non-reserve sites. Recruits <30 days old were surveyed in two primary habitat types (reef and rubble) in each of two replicate reserve and non-reserve sites. Recruitment of all fish species peaked in the summer and early fall; winter recruitment was consistently low. Some interannual recruitment patterns were roughly similar among species, with recruitment generally lower in 2004 for several taxa, possibly reflecting a system-wide process. During 7 peak recruitment months each year, overall recruitment to reef habitat was significantly higher in non-reserve sites in 2 of 7 years. In contrast, recruitment to rubble habitat was significantly higher in reserves in 3 of 7 years. Specific fish taxa had variable patterns of recruitment to reserves and non-reserves: Despite high interannual variation in recruitment magnitude, Scaridae (parrotfish) densities were significantly higher in reserves than in non-reserves. Densities of two abundant goby taxa (Gnatholepis thompsoni and Coryphopterus spp.) were also higher in reserves than in non-reserves, but the magnitude varied among years. Recruitment of the bicolor damselfish, Stegastes partitus, did not differ consistently between reserves and non-reserves. Densities of Thalassoma bifasciatum had an opposite trend relative to other taxa, with densities typically higher in non-reserves than in reserves (in 6 of 7 years; significant in only 2 years). Higher recruit densities (scarids, gobies, and all rubble taxa together) within reserves were coupled with significantly lower densities of intermediate-sized piscivores and significantly greater cover of Dictyota spp. macroalgae and turfs relative to non-reserves. Reserves may be areas of relative refuge from predation for some fish recruits due to a combination of reduced predator abundance and enhanced small-scale structural habitat.
- Sangil, C., Clemente, S., Martín-García, L., and Hernández, J.C. No-take areas as an effective tool to restore urchin barrens on subtropical rocky reefs. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 112: 207-215, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Rapid declines in the sea urchin Diadema aff. antillarum densities and shifts in community states of sublittoral rocky reefs have been observed over a short period (between 2004 and 2008) for the first time in an area with fishing restrictions (the MPA of La Palma, Canary Islands, eastern Atlantic Ocean). Changes were spatially variable according to the MPA's use area considered. During this period there was a sea urchin density reduction (in some cases from 3.34 to 0.45 indv·m-2), and an increase of erect seaweed (up to 30% of cover) in the sites of the no-take area. In the partially restricted fishing area, the effect was less clear and only some sites, near to the no-take area, showed the sea urchin reduction and seaweed growth, in contrast to the increase of sea urchin densities outside the MPA. In addition to increased coverage, there was also a replacement of the ephemeral species by the perennial seaweed Lobophora variegata. These changes were related to increases in the abundance of fish predators of the sea urchins. In the no-take area, where there is total fishing restriction, predators were so abundant to induce shifts in the benthic community, while in the partially protected area such as outside the MPA, fishing prevented the top-down process and the changes in the communities.
- Villamor, A. and Becerro, M.A. Species, trophic, and functional diversity in marine protected and non-protected areas. Journal of Sea Research 73: 109-116, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
The number of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) has grown exponentially in the last decades as marine environments steadily deteriorate. The success of MPAs stems from the overall positive benefits attributed to the "reserve effect," the totality of the consequences of protecting marine systems. The reserve effect includes but is beyond the goal of protecting particular species or areas with economical or cultural value. However, most data on the effects of MPAs focus on target species and there is limited evidence for the consequences of protection at larger levels of organization. Quantitative information on the reserve effect remains elusive partly because of its complex nature. Data on biodiversity can be used to quantify the reserve effect if not restricted to specific taxonomic groups. In our study, we quantified species diversity, trophic diversity, and an approach to functional diversity in five MPAs and adjacent non-protected areas along the Mediterranean coast of Spain. Our three measures of diversity were based on the abundance of algae, fish, sessile and mobile invertebrates in shallow water rocky communities and could be used to estimate the reserve effect based on species, trophic levels, or functional roles. We tested the hypothesis that species, trophic, and functional diversity were higher in protected areas than in adjacent non-protected areas. Species diversity varied with geographic area but not with protection status. However, we found higher functional diversity inside MPAs. Also, the effect of protection on functional diversity varied as a function of the geographic area. Our results support the uniqueness of MPAs at a species level and the universality of the reserve effect at the level of the trophic groups' composition. This type of comprehensive ecological approach may broaden our understanding of MPAs and their efficiency as management tools.
- Pierpaolo, C., Gianluca, S., Gianfranco, M., Pietro, B., Teresa, R., Vincenzo, I., and Franco, A. The effects of protection measures on fish assemblage in the Plemmirio marine reserve (Central Mediterranean Sea, Italy): A first assessment 5 years after its establishment. Journal of Sea Research 79: 20-26, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
This 2-year study was aimed to investigate the early effects of protection measures on fish assemblage in the Plemmirio marine reserve and to evaluate its level of enforcement. Sampling was carried out by means of underwater visual census techniques in four sampling sites within the reserve boundaries and eight outside the reserve. Results showed significant inside/outside differences in the multivariate abundance of fish assemblage. These results were confirmed and exemplified by significant univariate differences between locations for total abundance, Species Richness and diversity of the fish assemblage; values of these metrics were higher inside the reserve than outside. Small fish size and species of low and medium fishing value did not display significant inside/outside differences in abundances whereas medium, large size fish and high value species showed abundances significantly higher inside the marine reserve. Protection effects were particularly evident for large specimens of high fishing value, most of which were exclusively found inside the reserve (Diplodus puntazzo, Epinephelus costae, Mycteroperca rubra, Scorpaena scrofa, Spondyliosoma cantharus, Sciaena umbra and Epinephelus marginatus). The present study provides evidence of a reserve effect on fish populations after only five years since its establishment. This is an extraordinary result likely due to the high level of enforcement observed inside the Plemmirio MPA.
- Puckett, B.J. and Eggleston, D.B. Oyster demographics in a network of no-take reserves: Recruitment, growth, survival, and density dependence. Marine and Coastal Fisheries 4(1): 605-627, 2012.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
Central to ecology and resource management is knowledge of the spatiotemporal scales at which demographic rates vary and the ecological consequences of demographic variation, such as that due to density dependence. We quantified the spatiotemporal variation in eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica recruitment, density, growth, and survival and assessed density dependence within a network of no-take reserves in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina. From 2006 to 2008, average oyster recruitment and total density increased 15- and fivefold, respectively. The unprecedentedly high oyster densities in certain reserves (up to 6,500/m² at the end of the study) modified demographic rates such that further density increases were regulated by density-dependent survival. Oyster demographic rates varied significantly among reserves at relatively small spatial scales (20 km). Certain reserves were the strong "recruiters," others the fast "growers," and yet others the high "survivors." Cohort dynamics altered the demographic rank order such that the demographically "best" reserves varied intra- and interannually. From a management perspective, the prevalence of density-dependent survival suggests that the oysters in this system are habitat rather than recruitment limited, which may minimize the utility of stock enhancement programs. Addition of habitat (i.e., artificial reefs) should focus on reserves characterized by high recruitment but density-dependent growth and survival. This study (1) supports the efficacy of marine reserves in rapidly increasing the density and age-size structure of protected species, (2) highlights the need for spatially explicit demographic data to support multifaceted management objectives, and (3) when combined with evidence of reserve larval connectivity, provides support for applying metapopulation concepts to this reserve system.
- Burfeind, D.D., Pitt, K.A., Connolly, R.M., and Byers, J.E. Performance of non-native species within marine reserves. Biological Invasions 15(1): 17-28, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Conservation of biodiversity is a major aim of marine reserves; however the effects of reserves on non-native species, a major threat to biodiversity globally, is not widely known. Marine reserves could resist non-native species due to enhanced native diversity and biomass that heightens biotic resistance. Or non-native species could be enhanced by reserves by at least three mechanisms, including protection from harvesting, increased fishing pressure outside reserves facilitating invasions at a regional scale and increasing the exposure of reserves to more potential invaders, and increased propagule pressure from human visitation. We exhaustively searched the literature and found 13 cases that contained quantitative data on non-native species inside and outside marine reserves. In no cases did reserves resist non-native species. Of the seven cases where reserves were established prior to the arrival of the non-native species, five had no effect on the non-native species and two enhanced non-native species. Of the six cases where reserves were established in areas that had pre-existing non-native species, two had no effect on the non-native species and four enhanced the non-native species. These results suggest that while non-native species do equally well or better within marine reserves, too few data are currently available to draw broad, general conclusions regarding the effects of marine reserves on non-native species. Management plans for marine reserves rarely include guidelines for preventing or managing non-native species. If the trends we have detected here are supported by future studies, non-native species should be a priority for management of marine reserves.
- Scott, R. al. Global analysis of satellite tracking data shows that adult green turtles are significantly aggregated in Marine Protected Areas. Global Ecology and Biogeography 21(11): 1053-1061, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Aim Tracking technologies are often proposed as a method to elucidate the complex migratory life histories of migratory marine vertebrates, allowing spatially explicit threats to be identified and mitigated. We conducted a global analysis of foraging areas of adult green turtles (Chelonia mydas) subject to satellite tracking (n = 145) and the conservation designation of these areas according to International Union for Conservation of Nature criteria. Location The green turtle has a largely circumtropical distribution, with adults migrating up to thousands of kilometres between nesting beaches and foraging areas, typically in neritic seagrass or algal beds. Methods We undertook an assessment of satellite tracking projects that followed the movements of green turtles in tropical and subtropical habitats. This approach was facilitated by the use of the Satellite Tracking and Analysis Tool (http://www.seaturtle.org) and the integration of publicly available data on Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Results We show that turtles aggregate in designated MPAs far more than would be expected by chance when considered globally (35% of all turtles were located within MPAs) or separately by ocean basin (Atlantic 67%, Indian 34%, Mediterranean 19%, Pacific 16%). Furthermore, we show that the size, level of protection and time of establishment of MPAs affects the likelihood of MPAs containing foraging turtles, highlighting the importance of large, well-established reserves. Main conclusions Our findings constitute compelling evidence of the world-wide effectiveness of extant MPAs in circumscribing important foraging habitats for a marine megavertebrate.
- Moland, E., Olsen, E.M., Knutsen, H., Garrigou, P., Espeland, S.H., Kleiven, A.R., André, C., and Knutsen, J.A. Lobster and cod benefit from small-scale northern marine protected areas: inference from an empirical before–after control-impact study. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London [B] 280(1754): art. 20122679, 2013.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly implemented as tools to conserve and manage fisheries and target species. Because there are opportunity costs to conservation, there is a need for science-based assessment of MPAs. Here, we present one of the northernmost documentations of MPA effects to date, demonstrated by a replicated before–after control-impact (BACI) approach. In 2006, MPAs were implemented along the Norwegian Skagerrak coast offering complete protection to shellfish and partial protection to fish. By 2010, European lobster (Homarus gammarus) catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) had increased by 245 per cent in MPAs, whereas CPUE in control areas had increased by 87 per cent. Mean size of lobsters increased by 13 per cent in MPAs, whereas increase in control areas was negligible. Furthermore, MPA-responses and population development in control areas varied significantly among regions. This illustrates the importance of a replicated BACI design for reaching robust conclusions and management decisions. Partial protection of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) was followed by an increase in population density and body size compared with control areas. By 2010, MPA cod were on average 5 cm longer than in any of the control areas. MPAs can be useful management tools in rebuilding and conserving portions of depleted lobster populations in northern temperate waters, and even for a mobile temperate fish species such as the Atlantic cod.
- Machumu, M.E. and Yakupitiyage, A. Effectiveness of marine protected areas in managing the drivers of ecosystem change: A case of Mnazi Bay Marine Park, Tanzania. Ambio 42(3): 369-380, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are being promoted in Tanzania to mitigate the drivers of ecosystem change such as overfishing and other anthropogenic impacts on marine resources. The effectiveness of MPAs in managing those drivers was assessed in three ecological zones, seafront, mangrove, and riverine of Mnazi Bay Marine Park, using Participatory Community Analysis techniques, questionnaire survey, checklist and fishery resource assessment methods. Eleven major drivers of ecosystem change were identified. Resource dependence had a major effect in all ecological zones of the park. The results indicated that the park's legislations/regulations, management procedures, and conservation efforts are reasonably effective in managing its resources. The positive signs accrued from conservation efforts have been realized by the communities in terms of increased catch/income, awareness and compliance. However, some natural and anthropogenic drivers continued to threaten the park's sustainability. Furthermore, implementation of resource use and benefit sharing mechanisms still remained a considerable challenge to be addressed.
- Alexander, T.J. and Gladstone, W. Assessing the effectiveness of a long-standing rocky intertidal protected area and its contribution to the regional conservation of species, habitats and assemblages. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 23(1): 111-123, 2013.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
1. The acceptance of reserves as a useful management strategy relies on evidence of their effectiveness in preserving stocks of harvested species and conserving biodiversity. A history of ad hoc decisions in terrestrial and marine protected area planning has meant that many of these areas are contributing inefficiently to conservation goals. The conservation value of existing protected areas should be assessed when planning the placement of additional areas in a reserve network. 2. This study tested (1) the effectiveness of protection for intertidal molluscs of a marine reserve (Bouddi Marine Extension, NSW, Australia) established in 1971, and (2) the contribution of the protected area to the conservation of regional species, assemblages, and habitats. 3. The shell length and population density of one harvested (Cellana tramoserica), and three non-harvested species (Bembicium nanum, Morula marginalba, Nerita atramentosa) of intertidal molluscs were examined in the protected area and two reference locations over two seasons. 4. The heavily collected limpet C. tramoserica was significantly larger in the protected area and was the only species to exhibit a significant difference. No species significantly differed in population density between the protected area and reference locations. 5. Temporally replicated surveys of macro-molluscs at 21 locations over 75 km of coastline identified that the existing protected area included 50% of species, two of five assemblage types and 19 of 20 intertidal rocky shore habitats surveyed in the study region. Reservation of a further three rocky reefs would protect a large proportion of species (71%), a representative of each assemblage and all habitat types. 6. Despite originally being selected in the absence of information on regional biodiversity, the protected area is today an effective starting point for expansion to a regional network of intertidal protected areas.
- Alemany, D., Iribarne, O.O., and Acha, E.M. Effects of a large-scale and offshore marine protected area on the demersal fish assemblage in the Southwest Atlantic. ICES Journal of Marine Science 70(1): 123-134, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
There are few extensive and offshore located marine protected areas (MPAs) in the world oceans and their performance is still being debated. We evaluated the effects of a large-scale offshore MPA located on the Southwest Atlantic Patagonian Shelf (43ºS 63ºW) on the demersal fish assemblage. Compliance of the Patagonian MPA was assessed by analysing eight years of satellite vessel monitoring system (VMS; 2000–2008) data, which showed compliance and fishing effort concentrated near the protection boundaries. MPA effects were studied by employing a five year database collected by a scientific research vessel in protected and fishing locations, before and after the MPA establishment. We assessed 152 scientific trawling stations using multivariate analysis of fish assemblage structure, fish abundance (discriminating target and non-target species), and mean size and proportion of juveniles of the target species (Argentine hake, Merluccius hubbsi). The identified MPA effects were a trend towards increasing abundance of the demersal fish assemblage, the target and non-target fish species, and hake juvenile size, and a higher proportion of juveniles aged 2+ inside the MPA. These positive trends support the case for offshore, large-scale MPAs.
- Corell, H., Moksnes, P.-O., Engqvist, A., Döös, K., and Jonsson, P.R. Depth distribution of larvae critically affects their dispersal and the efficiency of marine protected areas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 467: 29-46, 2012.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
This study aims to improve estimates of dispersal by including information on larval traits, and in particular to explore how larval depth distribution affects connectivity and MPA (marine protected area) functionality in the Baltic Sea. A field survey showed that both invertebrates and fish differed in their larval depth distribution, ranging from surface waters to >100 m. A biophysical model of larval dispersal in the Baltic Sea showed that decreased depth distribution increased average dispersal distance 2.5-fold, decreased coastal retention and local recruitment, and substantially increased connectivity. Together with pelagic larval duration (PLD), depth distribution explained 80% of total variation in dispersal distance, whereas spawning season, and geographic and annual variations in circulation had only marginal effects. Median dispersal distances varied between 8 and 46 km, with 10% of simulated trajectories dispersing 30 to 160 km depending on drift depth and PLD. In the Baltic Sea, the majority of shallow Natura 2000 MPAs are <8 km in diameter. In the present study, only 1 of the 11 assessed larval taxa would have a recruitment >10% within MPAs of this size. Connectivity between MPAs was expected to be low for most larval trait combinations. Our simulations and the empirical data suggest that the MPA size within the Natura 2000 system is considerably below what is required for local recruitment of most sessile invertebrates and sedentary fish. Future designs of MPA networks would benefit from spatially explicit biophysical models that consider dispersal and connectivity for complex circulation patterns and informed larval traits.
- Olds, A.D., Pitt, K.A., Maxwell, P.S., and Connolly, R.M. Synergistic effects of reserves and connectivity on ecological resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology 49(6): 1195-1203, 2012.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
1. In light of the global extent and cascading effect of our impact on the environment, we design and manage reserves to restore biodiversity and the functioning of ecosystems. Mobile organisms link important processes across ecosystems, however, their roles in providing these services are often overlooked and we need to know how they influence ecosystem functions in reserves. Herbivorous fish play a key role in coral reef seascapes. By removing algae, they promote coral growth and recruitment, and help to increase resilience. 2. We examined how connectivity with mangroves affected herbivore populations and benthic succession on reefs in eastern Australia. We surveyed fish assemblages, examined reef composition and characterised benthic recruitment on reefs at multiple levels of connectivity with mangroves, in a no-take reserve and areas open to fishing. 3. Our results show that connectivity enhanced herbivore biomass and richness in reserves, and that these connectivity and reserve effects interacted to promote herbivory on protected reefs near mangroves. 4. Connectivity and reserve protection combined to double the biomass of roving herbivorous fish on protected reefs near mangroves. The increase in grazing intensity drove a trophic cascade that reduced algal cover and enhanced coral recruitment and reef resilience. 5. Synthesis and applications. Our findings demonstrate that ecosystem resilience can be improved by managing both reefs and adjacent habitats together as functional seascape units. By understanding how landscapes influence resilience, and explicitly incorporating these effects into conservation decision-making, we may have greater success with environmental restoration and preservation actions.
- Guidetti, P., Notarbartolo-di-Sciara, G., and Agardy, T. Integrating pelagic and coastal MPAs into large-scale ecosystem-wide management. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 23(1): 179-182, 2013.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
1. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have gained increasing popularity worldwide as tools for biodiversity conservation and management of human uses. This rise in popularity has been accompanied by an increasing body of scientific papers and books on MPA design and management, the vast majority of which are almost completely focused on coastal or insular MPAs. 2. A small number of MPAs have also been established in the pelagic domain, however, these pelagic sites have been considered in isolation from coastal/insular MPAs, even when the sites are adjacent or nearby. Pelagic and coastal ecosystems are not at all isolated from each other, but interconnected both physically via the flow of water, and biologically, via the movement of organisms. 3. In order to maximize the effectiveness of MPAs, it is suggested that spatial management planning encompass large areas that span both coastal and pelagic domains. This requires integrated, large-scale spatial management, which may extend across borders and thus require international cooperation.
- Götz, A., Kerwath, S.E., and Attwood, C.G. A step-by-step framework to assess benefits of established temperate marine protected areas. South African Journal of Science 109(1/2): art. 1243, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been advocated as a solution to the challenges of both conservation and modern fishery management, but their application remains controversial, partly because there are only general guidelines for evaluating their effectiveness. We propose a framework to specifically evaluate established MPAs in six steps. We tested the approach by reviewing published research and unpublished information on the Goukamma MPA in the centre of the South African temperate south coast. Information reviewed included effects on the structure of fish populations, catch and abundance indices of fish species, and ecosystem effects. We investigated factors that determine the usefulness of a MPA in fisheries management, including the movement behaviour of adult fishes, larval dispersal and fisher-displacement patterns. We found that differences in the rates of exploitation across the MPA border resulted in differences in abundance, size and condition of the main target species, roman (Chrysoblephus laticeps). The diversity and abundance of non-target fish species, and the composition of the benthic invertebrate community, were affected by the cessation of fishing. The potential for 'spillover' of adult roman might be limited to the vicinity of the MPA by their small home range, but there is potential for self-seeding and dispersal of roman eggs and larvae over wider areas. These theoretical considerations were confirmed by an analysis of catch data from before and after MPA implementation. The framework presented here may help to identify and fill gaps in the knowledge of established MPAs along South Africa's temperate south coast.
- Pala, C. Giant marine reserves pose vast challenges. Science 339(6120): 640-641, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Over the past 6 years, the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom have created huge marine reserves that have banned fishing in more than 1.9 million square kilometers of ocean. Unlike an older generation of preserves that mostly focused on small patches of coral or coastal fish stocks, these vast new sanctuaries are designed to protect high-seas ecosystems that include fish and other animals that routinely wander over huge territories. The trend delights conservation scientists who are worried about overexploitation of the world's oceans. But researchers are struggling to design and fund studies that will enable them to monitor changes over vast areas and determine whether the reserves are actually helping to rebuild marine populations.
- Storero, L.P., Narvarte, M.A., and González, R.A. Marine Protected Areas: reserve effect or natural variability? The Patagonian octopus case. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 93(1): 259-266, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Population characteristics can be influenced by specific factors of the habitat and the natural variability of populations can confuse the effect related to protected environments. This study compares the demographic characteristics of Octopus tehuelchus in three coastal environments: two Marine Protected Areas (San Antonio Bay (SAB) and Islote Lobos (IL)) and a traditional fishing zone (El Fuerte (EF)). Weight-frequency distributions, sex-ratio and recruitment were monthly compared between the three intertidal zones. Octopus tehuelchus was smaller in IL, where fishing intensity is lower or null, and reached the largest sizes in the main fishing area of EF and within SAB (where there is no regulation and a mid-high fishing intensity). The sex proportion in SAB and EF was 1:1 all along the year. Although the proportion of mature females in IL was higher, the highest recruitment was observed in EF (the traditional fishing ground). These new data suggest that previous studies, which reported that Marine Protected Areas have positive effects for O. tehuelchus populations, can no longer be supported, and highlight the importance of understanding and quantifying the magnitude and range of natural variability in each environment when assessing the effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas.
- Lloret, J., Muñoz, M., and Casadevall, M. Threats posed by artisanal fisheries to the reproduction of coastal fish species in a Mediterranean marine protected area. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 113: 133-140, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Artisanal fisheries are frequently considered as a sustainable activity compatible with the conservation objectives of marine protected areas (MPAs). Few studies have examined the impacts of these fisheries on the reproductive potential of exploited fish species within the marine reserves. This study evaluated the potential impact of artisanal fishing on the reproduction of coastal fish species in a Mediterranean MPA through onboard sampling from January 2008 to December 2010. Eleven sex-changing fish species constituted an important part of the catch (20% overall and up to 60% of the total gill net catch) and, in five of them, most individuals were of one sex. Artisanal fishing can negatively affect the sustainability of those coastal fishes showing sex reversal, particularly the protogynous ones such as Diplodus cervinus and Epinephelus marginatus, as well as the species with complex mating systems (e.g. some sparids, labrids and scorpaenids). In all species the average size for the individuals captured was above the minimum landing size (where this exists), but in four species (Conger conger, Diplodus puntazzo, Sphyraena spp. and Sparus aurata) it was below the size of first maturity (L50). Results show that sex and size selection by artisanal fishing not only can have an impact on the reproduction of coastal fish species but may also be exacerbating rather than reducing the impact of fishing on coastal resources. Thus, new management actions need to be urgently implemented in the MPAs where artisanal fisheries are allowed to operate in order to protect the reproductive potential of these species, particularly those showing a complicated reproductive strategy.
- Rogers-Bennett, L., Hubbard, K.E., and Juhasz, C.I. Dramatic declines in red abalone populations after opening a "de facto" marine reserve to fishing: Testing temporal reserves. Biological Conservation 157: 423-431, 2013.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
Red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) were assessed inside and outside a "de facto" reserve before fishing, after 3 and then 6 years of fishing. In just 3 years, there was a 65% decline (p < 0.001) in the subtidal and a 78% decline (p < 0.001) in the intertidal abalone populations. Size frequency distributions differed significantly following fishing and there was a sharp decrease in the potential egg production (>72% decline). Before fishing began, the intertidal density at the reserve was 86% greater (p = 0.001) than at a nearby fished site, however after 3 years of fishing there was no difference (p = 0.764). Abalone fishing report cards revealed a 950% increase in local catch once the reserve site was opened, however after just 1.5 years of fishing, catch declined sharply (59%) compared to the previous year. In 3 years, mean abalone catch per hour declined significantly (p < 0.001) from 7.01 (SD 6.14) to 2.44 (SD 1.98) as did abalone catch/picker from 2.83 (SD 0.47) to 2.38 (SD 0.92, p < 0.01). Estimates of illegal take inside the former reserve were 2.5 times greater than the legal catch. We demonstrate that for areas with high value, slow growing species such as red abalone, temporarily opening reserves may lead to density, size structure and egg production similar to heavily fished areas in just 3 years. These results caution against the use of temporal (rotating) reserves for abalone and emphasize the importance of marine spatial planning.
- Stevenson, T.C., Tissot, B.N., and Walsh, W.J. Socioeconomic consequences of fishing displacement from marine protected areas in Hawaii. Biological Conservation 160: 50-58, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been implemented across the globe to protect marine biodiversity, critical habitats, and to enhance commercially harvested fish stocks. Although ecological effects of MPAs are well documented, their impacts on fishing communities and the spatial distribution of fishing effort remains elusive and poorly understood. In 1999, a MPA network was implemented to protect against perceived declines of reef fish harvested for the aquarium trade on the island of Hawaii. We investigated how the MPA network altered the spatial distribution of fishing effort and impacted perceived fisher socioeconomic well-being and fishing operations, as well as if the economic and catch benefits offset costs in the newly established non-MPA fishing areas. Data were collected using social surveys, experimental fishing, and catch reports. The results suggest the MPA network significantly displaced fishing effort from the central to the northern and southern coastal regions of the island farther from ports of entry. Estimated catch revenues and experimental catch per unit effort were statistically greater as distance from port of entry increased. Perceived fisher socioeconomic well-being was unaffected, but perceived fishing cost and travel time increased significantly post-MPA network implementation. Although the MPA network displaced fishing effort, fisher socioeconomic well-being was not compromised likely because they expanded their operating range and favorable market factors helped offset potential economic losses. Our findings are relevant because they help clarify how MPA networks alter spatial fishing behavior and impact the well-being of small-scale fishers.
- van de Geer, C., Mills, M., Adams, V.M., Pressey, R.L., and McPhee, D. Impacts of the Moreton Bay Marine Park rezoning on commercial fishermen. Marine Policy 39: 248-256, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
The design of marine protected areas now typically incorporates socioeconomic data to minimize potential negative impacts on stakeholders. However, these data have limitations that are not well understood. Furthermore, whether the application of socioeconomic data in planning actually reduces avoidable negative impacts on stakeholders is rarely evaluated. This study assessed impacts on commercial fishermen of the rezoning of the Moreton Bay Marine Park, in south eastern Queensland. Specifically, this study (1) compared estimates of opportunity costs of new no-take zones from before and after the rezoning was implemented, and (2) identified impacts of the new zoning scheme on fishing businesses and changes to working environment. Although estimates of aggregated opportunity costs before implementation matched those reported afterwards, these costs varied strongly between types of fisheries and individual fishing businesses. A large proportion of fishermen reported loss of fishing grounds. Some have found new grounds but reported that their travel times have increased and that the remaining open grounds are overcrowded. Fishermen have attempted to adapt to this new situation by changing the time spent fishing or diversifying into other fisheries, which required investing in new gear. The effectiveness of a structural adjustment package to compensate fishermen and minimize displacement of effort was limited by poor information on the number and use of commercial fishing licences and little understanding of the dependence of individual fishing businesses on particular fishing grounds. Ways of improving fisheries data for conservation planning and designing adjustment packages to more effectively mitigate impacts of MPAs on commercial fishermen are suggested.
- Kar, T.K. and Ghosh, B. Sustainability and economic consequences of creating marine protected areas in multispecies multiactivity context. Journal of Theoretical Biology 318: 81-90, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
The present study deals with harvesting of prey species in the presence of predator in a multispecies marine fishery. The total habitat is divided into two patches: one is reserve area where fishing is completely banned and other zone is called fishing area where only prey is exploited. We assume that the prey fish possesses heterogeneous intrinsic growth rate with uniform carrying capacity where as predator has constant intrinsic growth rate with prey dependent carrying capacity. The analytical conditions are derived to prevent the species extinction for larger employed effort in single (only prey) species fishery. Optimal equilibrium premium are presented for both monospecies and multispecies fishery for all degree of protection. Increasing standing stock (ISS) and protected standing stock (PSS) are measured in the presence of prey-predator interaction.
- Rice, J. et al. The role of MPAs in reconciling fisheries management with conservation of biological diversity. Ocean and Coastal Management 69: 217-230, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
A workshop of over 100 participants, balanced between fisheries management and biodiversity conservation backgrounds, reviewed and synthesised experiences regarding policy and institutional frameworks for use of MPAs in the contexts of fisheries management and conservation of biological diversity. The workshop concluded that although fisheries managers and biodiversity conservation agencies may give differing and sometimes opposing weights to the many objectives that could be set for MPAs, only 25% of fisheries objectives and 30% of biodiversity objectives were considered to be potential sources of conflict. MPAs that segregate activities in space could contribute to resolving all but one of the potential conflicts over objectives associated with desired ecological outcomes. Conflicts over social or economic objectives could be improved, made worse, or not be affected by MPAs, depending on how the MPAs were developed and managed. Seven features of planning processes and six features of the governance processes for MPAs were identified that could help find broadly supported solutions to the conflicts that did occur. Once established, the management of the MPA should be inclusive and participatory, as well as continuously learning and adaptive. Approaches to ensure management had those properties were identified, including twelve specific mechanisms that should be available to the MPA managers. On the basis of these conclusions about objectives, planning, and management, a general framework for the governance of MPAs for both fisheries and biodiversity conservation was developed. Its ten general characteristics and twelve steps necessary for progress were identified. We discuss the special challenges of establishing and managing MPAs for fisheries and biodiversity conservation on the high seas that deserve further attention include information-sharing, coordination and defining jurisdictions and stake-holding.
- Vasconcelos, L., Ramos Pereira, M.J., Caser, U., Gonçalves, G., Silva, F., and Sá, R. MARGov – Setting the ground for the governance of marine protected areas. Ocean and Coastal Management 72: 46-53, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Started in 2008, the MARGov project proposes to build a Model of Collaborative Governance for Marine Protected Areas (MPA), using as a case study the Marine Park Luiz Saldanha (MPLS), Sesimbra, Portugal. The project works through an eco-social dialogue supported by active participation and aims to empower the local communities making them active agents for the sustainable governance of the coast and the ocean. In fact, successful MPA depend on the balance between man and environment, and on the eco-social dialogue established among all actors. The MARGov project is structured in three components - Governance, Citizenship and Dynamic-Spatial Structure. Here we present the work already developed in two of the components – Governance and Citizenship. The first component mainly aims at reinforcing competences and the co-responsibility of all key-actors within MPLS. Several participatory sessions, involving the local community, have been organized since the end of 2009 improving the communication and to set up a constructive dialog – reducing sources of conflict – among all the stakeholders. The Citizenship component targeted to re-establish the traditional affective link between the local community and the ocean, mostly by means of environmental education sessions in elementary schools. In this paper we present the methodology, the main results and discuss the lessons learned, theorizing from action and exploring how to pursue in the future for the sustainable management of Portuguese MPA. Intermediate outcomes include specific actions (e.g., strategy to promote sustainable tourism, enhance co-liability of users in inspection and surveillance); as well as comprehensive ones, such as a proposal to expand the existing strategic council of the MPA towards a satellite structure of co-management that includes representatives of different stakeholder groups in continuing articulation. The methodology developed for the collaborative process as, so far, revealed to have a substantial potential in enhancing trust building and empowerment. Stakeholders now show greater autonomy to pursue independent initiatives within the social network consolidated during the project.
- Campbell, S.J., Hoey, A.S., Maynard, J., Kartawijaya, T., Cinner, J., Graham, N.A.J., and Baird, A.H. Weak compliance undermines the success of no-take zones in a large government-controlled marine protected area. PLoS ONE 7(11): art. e50074, 2012.
Open Access >>
Read Abstract >>
The effectiveness of marine protected areas depends largely on whether people comply with the rules. We quantified temporal changes in benthic composition, reef fish biomass, and fishing effort among marine park zones (including no-take areas) to assess levels of compliance following the 2005 rezoning of the government-controlled Karimunjawa National Park (KNP), Indonesia. Four years after the rezoning awareness of fishing regulations was high amongst local fishers, ranging from 79.5 ± 7.9 (SE) % for spatial restrictions to 97.7 ± 1.2% for bans on the use of poisons. Despite this high awareness and strong compliance with gear restrictions, compliance with spatial restrictions was weak. In the four years following the rezoning reef fish biomass declined across all zones within KNP, with >50% reduction within the no-take Core and Protection Zones. These declines were primarily driven by decreases in the biomass of groups targeted by local fishers; planktivores, herbivores, piscivores, and invertivores. These declines in fish biomass were not driven by changes in habitat quality; coral cover increased in all zones, possibly as a result of a shift in fishing gears from those which can damage reefs (i.e., nets) to those which cause little direct damage (i.e., handlines and spears). Direct observations of fishing activities in 2009 revealed there was limited variation in fishing effort between zones in which fishing was allowed or prohibited. The apparent willingness of the KNP communities to comply with gear restrictions, but not spatial restrictions is difficult to explain and highlights the complexities of the social and economic dynamics that influence the ecological success of marine protected areas. Clearly the increased and high awareness of fishery restrictions following the rezoning is a positive step. The challenge now is to understand and foster the conditions that may facilitate compliance with spatial restrictions within KNP and marine parks worldwide.
- Miller, D.G.M., Slicer, N.M., and Hanich, Q. Monitoring, control and surveillance of protected areas and specially managed areas in the marine domain. Marine Policy 39: 64-71, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
A checklist is provided for monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) actions to be applied in the areal-based management of marine fisheries and attached biodiversity conservation needs. The application of MCS to underpin compliance enforcement in marine protected and specially managed areas is seen as important in addressing such needs. Spatial, temporal, management and practical considerations are identified as important implementing considerations for effective MCS-based compliance enforcement. Most notably, human activity impact mitigation appears to possess the greatest potential to reduce potentially-harmful and cumulative long-term effects across all relevant spatial-temporal ranges considered. Equally, selection of suitable MCS approaches requires careful consideration of spatial and/or temporal constraints, as well as regulatory requirements. Express reference is therefore made to conservation measures adopted by the Commission of the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) as examples of where specific, areal-based, precautionary, ecosystem-directed and operational MCS measures have been applied. It is concluded that customary MCS measures are suitable for both fisheries management and biodiversity conservation in protected, or specially managed, areas. The importance of cost-benefit considerations, management feedback and information review is also discussed in the context of minimising protected-area MCS costs.
- Bown, N.K., Gray, T.S., and Stead, S.M. Co-management and adaptive co-management: Two modes of governance in a Honduran marine protected area. Marine Policy 39: 128-134, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
Selecting the best mode of governance for marine protected areas (MPAs) especially in developing countries has generated considerable controversy in the academic and policy literature during the last 20 years. In this article, two modes – co-management (CM) and adaptive co-management (ACM) – are analysed in detail, and an examination is made of an attempt to put these modes sequentially into practice in the first (2003–2009) and second (2008–2013) management plans, respectively, of the Cayos Cochinos MPA (CCMPA) in Honduras. Extensive fieldwork was carried out during 2006–2010 in three communities dependent on the CCMPA (Rio Esteban, Nueva Armenia, and Chachahuate) including key informant interviews, focus group meetings, household surveys, and participant observation. The paper's findings are (1) that while the first plan implemented some CM principles (such as sharing responsibility between government, stakeholders and NGOs) it failed to deliver other CM principles (such as transparency and accountability); and (2) that while the second plan increased participation and transparency, and used a more adaptive approach, it still left many stakeholders out of the decision-making process, and its processes of experimentation, monitoring and social learning were very limited. The fact is that CM and ACM are laudable objectives, but very difficult to implement in full.
- Jones, P.J. Governing protected areas to fulfil biodiversity conservation obligations: from Habermasian ideals to a more instrumental reality. Environment, Development and Sustainability 15(1): 39-50, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
This paper considers the implications of the growing recognition of scale challenges, with a particular focus on those concerning the governance of protected areas (PAs), through a critical literature review. Two key scale challenges raised by PAs are considered: (1) the divergence of objectives between resource exploitation and biodiversity conservation; (2) the requirement to fulfil biodiversity conservation obligations. These are explored through a review of a UK marine PA case study which found that even though the state had adopted a controlling role that had created tensions by undermining the authority and livelihoods of some stakeholders, the partnership had been sufficiently strengthened to withstand these tensions through the instrumental development of 'bracing social capital'. Four conclusions for governance research with a particular reference to PA governance are drawn, and it is argued that presumptions based on Habermasian ideals should not constrain governance analyses, in that they should constructively incorporate the instrumental roles of the state.
- Borrell, B. Let the fish breathe. Scientific American 308(5): 74-79, 2013.
Read Abstract >>
•
Marine protected areas (MPAs), which limit such activities as fishing, are increasingly popular and seem to protect fisheries and biodiversity, but little research exists on whether they help communities. • Extensive work to answer that question is now under way in Raja Ampat, a large region of hundreds of islands, coral reefs and mangroves in Indonesia. • Two lessons already seem clear: smaller reserves are more likely to benefit the local fishers because small areas are easiest to defend and are therefore more likely to flourish and to be managed sustainably. Second, the community must end up devising rules and policing compliance if MPAs are to succeed. Otherwise inhabitants may flout MPAs, and tensions can rise between locals and outsiders.
- Grilo, C., Chircop, A., and Guerreiro, J. Prospects for transboundary marine protected areas in East Africa. Ocean Development and International Law 43(3): 243-266, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Transboundary marine protected areas have been proposed in East Africa to tackle threats to marine biodiversity, meet international MPA targets, promote tourism, and contribute to poverty reduction. This article examines what may drive, facilitate, or constrain states in creating a regime for transboundary MPAs. In East Africa, a regime between Mozambique and Tanzania is not yet formed and may be indefinitely delayed due to oil prospecting and exploration. There is, however, a well-developed regime between Mozambique and South Africa that has resulted in the two adjoining MPAs being declared the first transboundary MPA on the continent.
- Petra, D. Marine protected areas in areas beyond national jurisdiction. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 27(2): 291-350, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Marine protected areas (MPAs) in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) are embedded in a number of multilateral frameworks. The present report discusses how various global and regional conventions deal with MPAs in their regulatory frameworks, such as their processes and guidelines for the identification and designation of MPAs in ABNJ, and cross-sectoral issues. It is concluded that the designation of MPAs is one step, but it needs to be followed by effective management measures in order to prevent that MPAs, especially multi-purpose MPAs, only exist on paper for many years. Such measures are mostly sector-specific and thus often fall under the competences of various organizations that have their own individual criteria and balance of interests. The report concludes by providing recommendations to overcome obstacles in cross-sectoral cooperation and coordination, as well as on how to combine global and regional interaction.
- Gjerde, K.M. and Rulska-Domino, A. Marine protected areas beyond national jurisdiction: some practical perspectives for moving ahead. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 27(2): 351-373, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
Despite strong legal duties and political commitments for marine conservation and ecosystem-based management, biodiversity in the high seas and the Area (jointly referred to as areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ)) is under increasing threat. One important tool for enhancing conservation and multi-sectoral cooperation is the establishment and maintenance of representative networks of marine protected areas (MPAs). This commentary reviews potential avenues for accelerating progress towards representative MPA networks as part of a larger-scale effort towards improving the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. It builds on the report by Petra Drankier, Marine Protected Areas in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction, Report on Research Question 2 of the Study on `Biological Diversity and Governance of the High Seas' (2011), which describes the applicable global and regional conventions by discussing the strengths and weaknesses of proposed avenues for progress, including a possible multilateral agreement under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC). The commentary concludes with some observations for a pragmatic path ahead.
- Scott, K.N. Conservation on the high seas: developing the concept of the high seas marine protected areas. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 27(4): 849-857, 2012.
Read Abstract >>
This article explores developments in connection with marine protected areas (MPAs) on the high seas, beginning with a brief survey of existing high seas MPAs, recent initiatives such as the designation of the South Orkney Islands MPA, the creation of a network of OSPAR MPAs and the work undertaken by the UN General Assembly on developing a framework for oceans governance in areas beyond national jurisdiction. It considers: the absence of a clear legal basis for the creation of MPAs on the high seas; the relationship between MPA designation and traditional high seas freedoms; and the complex jurisdictional arrangements that govern activities on and in the high seas.
Read past issues of Marine Science Review in the archives.
|
|
