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- Ribic, C.A., Sheavly, S.B., and Rugg, D.J. Trends in marine debris in the U.S. Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico 1996-2003. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11(1): 7-19, 2011.
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Marine debris is a widespread and globally recognized problem. Sound information is necessary to understand the extent of the problem and to inform resource managers and policy makers about potential mitigation strategies. Although there are many shortterm studies on marine debris, a longer-term perspective and the ability to compare among regions has heretofore been missing in the U.S. Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. We used data from a national beach monitoring program to evaluate and compare amounts, composition, and trends of indicator marine debris in the U.S. Caribbean (Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands) and the Gulf of Mexico from 1996 to 2003. Indicator items provided a standardized set that all surveys collected; each was assigned a probable source: ocean-based, land-based, or general-source. Probable ocean-based debris was related to activities such as recreational boating/fishing, commercial fishing and activities on oil/gas platforms. Probable land-based debris was related to land-based recreation and sewer systems. General-source debris represented plastic items that can come from either ocean- or land-based sources; these items were plastic bags, strapping bands, and plastic bottles (excluding motor oil containers). Debris loads were similar between the U.S. Caribbean and the western Gulf of Mexico; however, debris composition on U.S. Caribbean beaches was dominated by land-based indicators while the western Gulf of Mexico was dominated by ocean-based indicators. Beaches along the eastern Gulf of Mexico had the lowest counts of debris; composition was dominated by land-based indicators, similar to that found for the U.S. Caribbean. Debris loads on beaches in the Gulf of Mexico are likely affected by Gulf circulation patterns, reducing loads in the eastern Gulf and increasing loads in the western Gulf. Over the seven years of monitoring, we found a large linear decrease in total indicator debris, as well as all source categories, for the U.S. Caribbean. Lower magnitude decreases were seen in indicator debris along the eastern Gulf of Mexico. In contrast, only land-based indicators declined in the western Gulf of Mexico; total, ocean-based and general-source indicators remained unchanged. Decreases in land-based indicators were not related to human population in the coastal regions; human population increased in all regions over the time of the study. Significant monthly patterns for indicator debris were found only in the Gulf of Mexico; counts were highest during May through September, with peaks occurring in July. Inclement weather conditions before the time of the survey also accounted for some of the variation in the western Gulf of Mexico; fewer items were found when there were heavy seas or cold fronts in the weeks prior to the survey, while tropical storms (including hurricanes) increased the amount of debris. With the development around the globe of long-term monitoring programs using standardized methodology, there is the potential to help management at individual sites, as well as generate larger-scale perspectives (from regional to global) to inform decision makers. Incorporating mechanisms producing debris into marine debris programs would be a fruitful area for future research.
- Portz, L., Manzolli, R.P., and Ivar do Sul, J.A. Marine debris on Rio Grande do Sul north coast, Brazil: spatial and temporal patterns. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11(1): 41-48, 2011.
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Marine debris is any solid waste (plastic, polystyrene, rubber, foam, glass, metal, cloth, and other materials) that enters the marine or coastal environments from any source. Sources are frequently defined as land-based and marine-based, and its identification is being recognized as an important step towards the solutions related to marine debris problems. They include damages to the biota, to fishing activities and beach environmental degradation. In Brazil, the occurrence of marine debris is relatively well documented, but quantities, sources and spatial and temporal patterns of marine debris are unknown for the North sector of the Rio Grande do Sul coastline. On Xangri-Lá beaches, marine debris was studied during three months (February, April and August) in ten transects also divided into two horizontal strata (backshore and dunes) which were sampled separately. Plastics (42%) were the main class of material, sampled on all monitored months, transects and strata, followed by cigarette butts (39%). Among plastic debris, fragments (41%) were the majority, showing that beach cleaning services are not an efficient solution to marine debris problem on Xangri-Lá beaches. February was the most contaminated month considering the total items sampled on the beach, specific types of plastics and only cigarette butts. No significant differences were detected among backshore and dunes or sampled transects. Land-based sources were where the great majority (68%) of marine debris originated, attributed mostly to beach users. The absence of marine-based sources was related to the nonexistence of big rivers or fishing ports. The necessity of long term educational programs in spite of the short term methods is highlighted.
- Moore, C.J., Lattin, G.L., and Zellers, A.F. Quantity and type of plastic debris flowing from two urban rivers to coastal waters and beaches of Southern California. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11(1): 65-73, 2011.
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Plastic debris is a common persistent pollutant in marine and coastal environments worldwide. Questions naturally arise among those dealing with the debris as to its source. Here we quantify the contribution of a large urban area, the Los Angeles basin, to the problem via the two main rivers draining its watershed. Samples of river water were taken with a variety of nets during both rainy and dry conditions from mass emission sites above the reach of tidal influence in the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Rivers. The samples were from different strata in the flowing rivers using nets with less than 1mm mesh. Laboratory analysis of the samples divided the plastic debris into two size classes: ≥1mm, <4.75mm, and ≥4.75mm. A reason for the two size classes, in addition to providing a distinction between macro and micro debris, was that under California law, debris less than 5mm is not considered trash subject to regulation. The debris was first sorted into natural, plastic, and non-plastic manmade items. The plastic debris was then classified by type; either fragments, foams (mainly polystyrene), pre-production resin pellets, line, or films. Results extrapolated for 24 hours of flow from one moderate and one heavy rain day and one dry day when added together produced the following for 72 hours: Total number of plastic objects and fragments, 2,333,871,120.0 (2.3 billion), total weight of plastic objects and fragments 30, 438.52 kg (30 metric tons). In terms of the number of pieces, the majority, 71% were foams, with miscellaneous fragments at 14%, pre-production resin pellets at 10% and whole items at 1%. In terms of weight, however, whole items were the heaviest, at 37% of the total, followed by fragments at 29%, pellets at 13% and foamed polystyrene at 11%.
- Thiel, M., Bravo, M., Hinojosa, I. A., Luna, G., Miranda, L., Núñez, P., Pacheco, A.S., and Vásquez, N. Anthropogenic litter in the SE Pacific: An overview of the problem and possible solutions. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11(1): 115-134, 2011.
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Litter from anthropogenic sources is commonly observed on beaches in the SE Pacific. The composition of litter found on the shore suggests that most of it has passed relatively little time at sea, and has mostly local sources. In southern Chile, stray items from aquaculture installations comprise most of the garbage, whereas in central and northern Chile and in Peru, general household litter is most common. Abundances are highest in areas with intense human activities, i.e. harbors, cities, and aquaculture centers. Impacts on the marine life are commonly observed, but have not been systematically studied in the SE Pacific. Estimated costs of litter on local beaches are high, as underlined by the high costs of beach cleaning, especially during the annual tourist season. Current data suggest that beaches without regular cleaning activities accumulate large amounts of litter. Regulations are in place to avoid littering at sea and on beaches, but law enforcement is limited mainly because the governmental bodies in charge are understaffed. Therefore, the most viable option to reduce the amount of litter is to reduce its production in the first place, improve reuse and recycling, and enhance environmental awareness. Several governmental and non-governmental organisations develop education programs that incorporate environmental aspects. The geographic coverage of these programs should be expanded. Furthermore, there is a need for long-term programs that inform the public about the need to reduce the amounts of waste and increase reuse and recycling in all sectors of society.
- Frias, J.P.G.L., Martins, J., and Sobral, P. Research in plastic marine debris in mainland Portugal. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11(1): 145-148, 2011.
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Plastic marine debris pollution affects all the oceans, and has short, medium and long term consequences for organisms living in these environments. Plastics, especially microplastics represent a threat to wildlife due to particle uptake by ingestion while larger plastic pieces entangle and suffocate animals. Since 2008, we are studying plastic debris stranded on the beaches in mainland Portugal, analyzing the types of plastic and their distribution, and more recently verifying the presence of microplastics in plankton samples and the degradation of such materials in the coastal environment. So far our results show that plastics are capable of adsorbing persistent organic pollutants (POP) which may be harmful for the marine environment and aquatic and terrestrial organisms that feed in nearby beaches. Research in this field is necessary, so that we can have a representative picture of the current situation of plastic marine debris in the coast of Portugal.
- Scott, G. The changing nature of oceanic plastics litter. International Journal of Environmental Studies 68(2): 191-195, 2011.
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Concerns about the accumulation of partially degraded plastics in the oceans have led observers to conclude that there is no solution to this problem. Yet solutions already exist and are leading to a change and reduction of the type and degradability of commercial detritus. Much of the remaining residues arise from fishing activities.
- Moret-Ferguson, S., Law, K.L., Proskurowski, G., Murphy, E.K., Peacock, E.E., and Reddy, C.M. The size, mass, and composition of plastic debris in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(10): 1873-1878, 2010.
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This study reports the first inventory of physical properties of individual plastic debris in the North Atlantic. We analyzed 748 samples for size, mass, and material composition collected from surface net tows on 11 expeditions from Cape Cod, Massachusetts to the Caribbean Sea between 1991 and 2007. Particles were mostly fragments less than 10 mm in size with nearly all lighter than 0.05 g. Material densities ranged from 0.808 to 1.24 g ml-1, with about half between 0.97 and 1.04 g ml-1, a range not typically found in virgin plastics. Elemental analysis suggests that samples in this density range are consistent with polypropylene and polyethylene whose densities have increased, likely due to biofouling. Pelagic densities varied considerably from that of beach plastic debris, suggesting that plastic particles are modified during their residence at sea. These analyses provide clues in understanding particle fate and potential debris sources, and address ecological implications of pelagic plastic debris.
- Zarfl, C., Fleet, D., Fries, E., Galgani, F., Gerdts, G., Hanke, G., and Matthies, M. Microplastics in oceans. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(8): 1589-1591, 2011.
- Andrady, A.L. Microplastics in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(8): 1596-1605, 2011.
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This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of micro-plastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.
- Doyle, M.J., Watson, W., Bowlin, N.M., and Sheavly, S. B. Plastic particles in coastal pelagic ecosystems of the Northeast Pacific ocean. Marine Environmental Research 71(1): 41-52, 2011.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the distribution, abundance and characteristics of plastic particles in plankton samples collected routinely in Northeast Pacific ecosystems, and to contribute to the development of ideas for future research into the occurrence and impact of small plastic debris in marine pelagic ecosystems. Plastic debris particles were assessed from zooplankton samples collected as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) ongoing ecosystem surveys during two research cruises in the Southeast Bering Sea in the spring and fall of 2006 and four research cruises off the U.S. West coast (primarily off southern California) in spring, summer and fall of 2006, and in January of 2007. Nets with 0.505 mm mesh were used to collect surface samples during all cruises, and subsurface samples during the four cruises off the west coast. The 595 plankton samples processed indicate that plastic particles are widely distributed in surface waters. The proportion of surface samples from each cruise that contained particles of plastic ranged from 8.75 to 84.0%, whereas particles were recorded in sub-surface samples from only one cruise (in 28.2% of the January 2007 samples). Spatial and temporal variability was apparent in the abundance and distribution of the plastic particles and mean standardized quantities varied among cruises with ranges of 0.004 - 0.19 particles/m³, and 0.014 - 0.209 mg dry mass/m³. Off southern California, quantities for the winter cruise were significantly higher, and for the spring cruise significantly lower than for the summer and fall surveys (surface data). Differences between surface particle concentrations and mass for the Bering Sea and California coast surveys were significant for pair-wise comparisons of the spring but not the fall cruises. The particles were assigned to three plastic product types: product fragments, fishing net and line fibers, and industrial pellets: and five size categories: <1 mm, 1-2.5 mm, >2.5-5 mm, >5-10 mm, and >10 mm. Product fragments accounted for the majority of the particles, and most were less than 2.5 mm in size. The ubiquity of such particles in the survey areas and predominance of sizes <2.5 mm implies persistence in these pelagic ecosystems as a result of continuous breakdown from larger plastic debris fragments, and widespread distribution by ocean currents. Detailed investigations of the trophic ecology of individual zooplankton species, and their encounter rates with various size ranges of plastic particles in the marine pelagic environment, are required in order to understand the potential for ingestion of such debris particles by these organisms. Ongoing plankton sampling programs by marine research institutes in large marine ecosystems are good potential sources of data for continued assessment of the abundance, distribution and potential impact of small plastic debris in productive coastal pelagic zones.
- Hinojosa, I.A., Rivadeneira, M.M., and Thiel, M. Temporal and spatial distribution of floating objects in coastal waters of central–southern Chile and Patagonian fjords. Continental Shelf Research 31(3-4): 172-186, 2011.
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Floating objects are suggested to be the principal vector for the transport and dispersal of marine invertebrates with direct development as well as catalysts for carbon and nutrient recycling in accumulation areas. The first step in identifying the ecological relevance of floating objects in a specific area is to identify their spatio-temporal distribution. We evaluated the composition, abundance, distribution, and temporal variability of floating objects along the continental coast of central-southern Chile (33-42°S) and the Patagonian fjords (42-50°S) using ship surveys conducted in austral winter (July/August) and spring (November) of the years 2002-2005 and 2008. Potential sources of floating items were identified with the aid of publicly available databases and scientific reports. We found three main types of floating objects, namely floating marine debris (mainly plastic objects and Styrofoam), wood (trunks and branches), and floating kelps (Macrocystis pyrifera and Durvillaea antarctica). Floating marine debris were abundant along most of the examined transects, with markedly lower abundances toward the southern fjord areas. Floating marine debris abundances generally corresponded to the distribution of human activities, and were highest in the Interior Sea of Chiloé, where aquaculture activities are intense. Floating wood appeared sporadically in the study area, often close to the main rivers. In accordance with seasonal river run-off, wood was more abundant along the continental coast in winter (rainy season) and in the Patagonian fjords during the spring surveys (snow melt). Densities of the two floating kelp species were similar along the continental coast, without a clear seasonal pattern. M. pyrifera densities increased towards the south, peaking in the Patagonian fjords, where it was dominant over D. antarctica. Densities of M. pyrifera in the Patagonian fjords were highest in spring. Correlation analyses between the abundances of floating objects and the distance to the nearest sources were generally non-significant, suggesting that post-supply processes affect the distribution of the floating objects in the study region. The identification of several major retention zones supports this idea. Accumulation areas of floating objects appear to be more common in the fjord zones. In general, the results underscore the abundance of floating objects throughout the study region and the fact that floating marine debris sources are mostly local, whereas floating algae may be dispersed over greater distances. Future studies should focus on the ecological role of floating objects in biota dispersal and nutrient cycling.
- Thiel, M., Hinojosa, I.A., Joschko, T., and Gutow, L. Spatio-temporal distribution of floating objects in the German Bight (North Sea). Journal of Sea Research 65(3): 368-379, 2011.
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Floating objects facilitate the dispersal of marine and terrestrial species but also represent a major environmental hazard in the case of anthropogenic plastic litter. They can be found throughout the world's oceans but information on their abundance and the spatio-temporal dynamics is scarce for many regions of the world. This information, however, is essential to evaluate the ecological role of floating objects. Herein, we report the results from a ship-based visual survey on the abundance and composition of flotsam in the German Bight (North Sea) during the years 2006 to 2008. The aim of this study was to identify potential sources of floating objects and to relate spatio-temporal density variations to environmental conditions. Three major flotsam categories were identified: buoyant seaweed (mainly fucoid brown algae), natural wood and anthropogenic debris. Densities of these floating objects in the German Bight were similar to those reported from other coastal regions of the world. Temporal variations in flotsam densities are probably the result of seasonal growth cycles of seaweeds and fluctuating river runoff (wood). Higher abundances were often found in areas where coastal fronts and eddies develop during calm weather conditions. Accordingly, flotsam densities were often higher in the inner German Bight than in areas farther offshore. Import of floating objects and retention times in the German Bight are influenced by wind force and direction. Our results indicate that a substantial amount of floating objects is of coastal origin or introduced into the German Bight from western source areas such as the British Channel. Rapid transport of floating objects through the German Bight is driven by strong westerly winds and likely facilitates dispersal of associated organisms and gene flow among distant populations.
- Stevenson, C. 2011. Plastic Debris in the California Marine Ecosystem: A Summary of Current Research, Solution Strategies and Data Gaps. University of Southern California Sea Grant. Synthetic Report. California Ocean Science Trust, Oakland, CA. 70pp.
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- Ivar do Sul, J.A., Santos, I.R., Friedrich, A.C., Matthiensen, A., and Fillmann, G. Plastic pollution at a sea turtle conservation area in NE Brazil: Contrasting developed and undeveloped beaches. Estuaries and Coasts 34(4): 814-823, 2011.
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Sea turtles are highly susceptible to plastic ingestion and entanglement. Beach debris were surveyed along the most important sea turtle nesting beaches in Brazil (Costa dos Coqueiros, Bahia State). No significant differences among developed and undeveloped beaches were observed in terms of total number of items. Local sources (tourism activities) represented 70% of debris on developed beaches, where cigarette butts, straws, paper fragments, soft plastic fragments, and food packaging were the most abundant items. Non-local sources (domestic and fishing activities) accounted for about 70% of debris on undeveloped beaches, where the most abundant items were rigid plastic fragments, ropes, soft plastic fragments, caps, and polystyrene. The projected surface area of beach debris did not vary among developed and undeveloped beaches. Overseas containers accounted for about 25% of regional plastic pollution, implying that international pollution prevention agreements are not being respected off the Brazilian coast.
- Van Franeker, J.A. et al. Monitoring plastic ingestion by the northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis in the North Sea. Environmental Pollution 159(10): 2609-2615, 2011.
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The abundance of plastics in stomachs of northern fulmars from the North Sea is used in the OSPAR Ecological Quality Objective (EcoQO) for marine litter. The preliminary EcoQO defines acceptable ecological quality as the situation where no more than 10% of fulmars exceed a critical level of 0.1 g of plastic in the stomach. During 2003-2007, 95% of 1295 fulmars sampled in the North Sea had plastic in the stomach (on average 35 pieces weighing 0.31 g) and the critical level of 0.1 g of plastic was exceeded by 58% of birds, with regional variations ranging from 48 to 78%. Long term data for the Netherlands since the 1980s show a decrease of industrial, but an increase of user plastics, with shipping and fisheries as the main sources. The EcoQO is now also used as an indicator for Good Environmental Status in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive.
- Browne, M.A., Crump, P., Niven, S.J., Teuten, E., Tonkin, A., Galloway, T., and Thompson, R. Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: sources and sinks. Environmental Science and Technology 45(21): 9175-9179, 2011.
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Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. Here, we show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing six continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relationship between the abundance of miocroplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Experiments sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers per wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
- Guneroglu, A. Marine litter transportation and composition in the coastal southern Black Sea region. Scientific Research and Essays 5(3): 296-303, 2010.
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Marine litter problem has gained great attetion in regional seas and lead to degredation and threaten aquatic life in marine environment. Coastal marine litter in the Black Sea is mainly caused by transportation and deposition of antropogenic waste resulting from river outflows. Measures and regulations remain inadequate to protect the coastal regions against pollution in the region. Geomorphology of the region creates many watersheds supplied by extensive stream networks. To estimate litter load on the Black Sea coastal areas 15 streams were surveyed. Study area is densely populated coastal region with scattered settlemets toward steep higher areas. Dry solid waste load is triggered by settlement plan and leads to accumulation of marine litter in coastal areas. Regional precipitation characteristic of the region determines flood timing and frequency with very high rainfall records. Composition and distrubution of sampled marine litter is carried out by identifying litter type propotionality to total load. Plastic has the highest ratio of 56% among all litter type. Yearly total litter load for Degirmendere stream is estimated 102.25 m3/year for 100 ha. Multispectral satellite images are used to assess transportation of floating or drifting litter from coastal areas to inner basin. Man made alterations of coastal areas are also evaluated in terms of aquatic living resources and pollution. Main problems are stressed and possible solutions and implications are given to reduce pollution problem in coastal areas.
- Boerger, C.M., Lattin, G.L., Moore, S.L., and Moore, C.J. Plastic ingestion by planktivorous fishes in the North Pacific Central Gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(12): 2275-2278, 2010.
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A significant amount of marine debris has accumulated in the North Pacific Central Gyre (NPCG). The effects on larger marine organisms have been documented through cases of entanglement and ingestion; however, little is known about the effects on lower trophic level marine organisms. This study is the first to document ingestion and quantify the amount of plastic found in the gut of common planktivorous fish in the NPCG. From February 11 to 14, 2008, 11 neuston samples were collected by manta trawl in the NPCG. Plastic from each trawl and fish stomach was counted and weighed and categorized by type, size class and color. Approximately 35% of the fish studied had ingested plastic, averaging 2.1 pieces per fish. Additional studies are needed to determine the residence time of ingested plastics and their effects on fish health and the food chain implications.
- Lazar, B. and Gracan, R. Ingestion of marine debris by loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, in the Adriatic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(1): 43-47, 2011.
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We examined the occurrence of marine debris in the gastrointestinal tract of 54 loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) found stranded or incidentally captured dead by fisheries in the Adriatic Sea, with a curved carapace length of 25.0-79.2 cm. Marine debris was present in 35.2% of turtles and included soft plastic, ropes, Styrofoam and monofilament lines found in 68.4%, 42.1%, 15.8% and 5.3% of loggerheads that have ingested debris, respectively. The dry mass of debris per turtle was low, ranging from <0.01 to 0.71 g, and the ingestion was not significantly affected by sex or body size (all p > 0.05). Marine debris averaged 2.2 ± 8.0% of dry mass of gut content, with a maximum of 35% found in a juvenile turtle that most likely died due to debris ingestion. Considering the relatively high occurrence of debris intake and possible sub-lethal effects of even small quantities of marine debris, this can be an additional factor of concern for loggerheads in the Adriatic Sea.
- Votier, S.C., Archibald, K., Morgan, G., and Morgan, L. The use of plastic debris as nesting material by a colonial seabird and associated entanglement mortality. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(1): 168-172, 2011.
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Entanglement with plastic debris is a major cause of mortality in marine taxa, but the population-level consequences are unknown. Some seabirds collect marine debris for nesting material, which may lead to entanglement. Here we investigate the use of plastics as nesting material by northern gannets Morus bassanus and assess the associated levels of mortality. On average gannet nests contained 469.91 g (range 0 - 1293 g) of plastic, equating to an estimated colony total of 18.46 tonnes (range 4.47 - 42.34 tonnes). The majority of nesting material was synthetic rope, which appears to be used preferentially. On average 62.85 ± 26.84 (range minima 33 - 109) birds were entangled each year, totalling 525 individuals over eight years, the majority of which were nestlings. Although mortality rates are high, they are unlikely to have population-level effects. The use of synthetic fibres as nesting material is a common strategy among seabirds, but the impacts of entanglement warrants further investigation.
- Possatto, F.E., Barletta, M., Costa, M.F., do Sul, J.A.I., and Dantas, D.V. Plastic debris ingestion by marine catfish: An unexpected fisheries impact. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(5): 1098-1102, 2011.
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Plastic marine debris is a pervasive type of pollution. River basins and estuaries are a source of plastics pollution for coastal waters and oceans. Estuarine fauna is therefore exposed to chronic plastic pollution. Three important catfish species [Cathorops spixii (N = 60), Cathorops agassizii (N = 60) and Sciades herzbergii (N = 62)] from South Western Atlantic estuaries were investigated in a tropical estuary of the Brazilian Northeast in relation to their accidental ingestion of plastic marine debris. Individuals from all three species had ingested plastics. In C. spixii and C. agassizii, 18% and 33% of individuals had plastic debris in their stomachs, respectively. S. herzbergii showed 18% of individuals were contaminated. All ontogenetic phases (juveniles, sub-adults and adults) were contaminated. Nylon fragments from cables used in fishery activities (subsistence, artisanal and commercial) played a major role in this contamination. These catfish spend their entire life cycles within the estuary and are an important feeding resource for larger, economically important, species. It is not yet possible to quantify the scale and depth of the consequences of this type of pollution. However, plastics are well known threat to living resources in this and other estuaries. Conservation actions will need to from now onto take plastics pollution into consideration.
- Murray, F. and Cowie, P.R. Plastic contamination in the decapod crustacean Nephrops norvegicus (Linnaeus, 1758). Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(6): 1207-1217, 2011.
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The aim of this study was to determine the extent Nephrops consumes plastics in the Clyde Sea and if this intake occurs through their diet. Plastic contamination was found to be high in Nephrops, 83% of the animals sampled contained plastics (predominately filaments) in their stomachs. Tightly tangled balls of plastic strands were found in 62% of the animals studied but were least prevalent in animals which had recently moulted. No significant difference in plastic load was observed between males and females. Raman spectroscopy indicated that some of the microfilaments identified from gut contents could be sourced to fishing waste. Nephrops fed fish seeded with strands of polypropylene rope were found to ingest but not to excrete the strands. The fishery for Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus, is the most valuable in Scotland and the high prevalence of plastics in Nephrops may have implications for the health of the stock.
- Denuncio, P., Bastida, R., Dassis, M., Giardino, G., Gerpe, M., and Rodríguez, D. Plastic ingestion in Franciscana dolphins, Pontoporia blainvillei (Gervais and d'Orbigny, 1844), from Argentina. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(8): 1836-1841, 2011.
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Plastic debris (PD) ingestion was examined in 106 Franciscana dolphins (Pontoporia blainvillei) incidentally captured in artisanal fisheries of the northern coast of Argentina. Twenty-eight percent of the dolphins presented PD in their stomach, but no ulcerations or obstructions were recorded in the digestive tracts. PD ingestion was more frequent in estuarine (34.6%) than in marine (19.2%) environments, but the type of debris was similar. Packaging debris (cellophane, bags, and bands) was found in 64.3% of the dolphins, with a lesser proportion (35.7%) ingesting fishery gear fragments (monofilament lines, ropes, and nets) or of unknown sources (25.0%). PD ingestion correlated with ontogenetic changes in feeding regimes, reaching maximum values in recently weaned dolphins. Because a simultaneous increase in gillnet entanglement and the bioaccumulation of heavy metals take place at this stage, the first months after trophic independence should be considered as a key phase for the conservation of Franciscana dolphin stocks in northern Argentina.
- Davison, P. and Asch, R.G. Plastic ingestion by mesopelagic fishes in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Marine Ecology Progress Series 432: 173-180, 2011.
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The oceanic convergence zone in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre acts to accumulate floating marine debris, including plastic fragments of various sizes. Little is known about the ecological consequences of pelagic plastic accumulation. During the 2009 Scripps Environmental Accumulation of Plastics Expedition (SEAPLEX), we investigated whether mesopelagic fishes ingest plastic debris. A total of 141 fishes from 27 species were dissected to examine whether their stomach contents contained plastic particles. The incidence of plastic in fish stomachs was 9.2%. Net feeding bias was evaluated and judged to be minimal for our methods. The ingestion rate of plastic debris by mesopelagic fishes in the North Pacific is estimated to be from 12000 to 24000 tons yr-1. Similar rates of plastic ingestion by mesopelagic fishes may occur in other subtropical gyres.
- GESAMP. 2010. Proceedings of the GESAMP International Workshop on plastic particles as a vector in transporting persistent, bio-accumulating and toxic substances in the oceans. GESAMP Reports and Studies No. 82. 68pp.
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It is well documented that plastic litter causes physical harm to marine mammals, fish and invertebrates and instances of death by entanglement, asphyxiation or blockage of organs are common. It is also known that plastic particles tend to accumulate persistent, bioaccumulating and toxic contaminants such as PCBs, DDT and PBDEs. Microplastics have larger surface to volume ratios, potentially facilitating contaminant exchange and have been shown to be ingested by a range of organisms. One of the greatest uncertainties is whether this leads to the bioaccumulation of the contaminant load (absorbed and plastic additives), and hence whether micro-plastics represent an additional and significant vector for transferring pollutants. The conclusion from the Workshop was that this will remain unresolved until the results of additional studies and data collations are available. Recent modelling studies show that the flux to remote areas of contaminants associated with micro-plastics is small compared with that from oceanic and especially long-distance atmospheric transport processes. The difference is that plastics with their accumulated contaminant load are directly ingestible by organisms. A definite cause for concern is that particles, including microplastics have recently been found in the circulatory systems and other tissues of filter feeding organisms such as the blue mussels following experimental exposure and caused typical inflammatory responses. Whether the presence of acid conditions or surface active digestive substances in the guts of such marine organisms can desorb and release contaminants in significant quantities to cause such effects, or whether such a response is to their physical presence, remains to be answered.
- Rios, L.M., Jones, P.R., Moore, C., and Narayan, U.V. Quantitation of persistent organic pollutants adsorbed on plastic debris from the Northern Pacific Gyre's ''eastern garbage patch''. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 12(12): 2226-2236, 2010.
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Floating marine plastic debris was found to function as solid-phase extraction media, adsorbing and concentrating pollutants out of the water column. Plastic debris was collected in the North Pacific Gyre, extracted, and analyzed for 36 individual PCB congeners, 17 organochlorine pesticides, and 16 EPA priority PAHs. Over 50% contained PCBs, 40% contained pesticides, and nearly 80% contained PAHs. The PAHs included 2, 3 and 4 ring congeners. The PCBs were primarily CB-11, 28, 44, 52, 66, and 101. The pesticides detected were primarily p,p-DDTs and its metabolite, o,p-DDD, as well as BHC (α, β, δ and γ). The concentrations of pollutants found ranged from a few ppb to thousands of ppb. The types of PCBs and PAHs found were similar to those found in marine sediments. However, these plastic particles were mostly polyethylene which is resistant to degradation and although functioning similarly to sediments in accumulating pollutants, these had remained on or near the ocean surface. Particles collected included intact plastic items as well as many pieces less than 5 mm in size.
- Zarfl, C. and Matthies, M. Are marine plastic particles transport vectors for organic pollutants to the Arctic? Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(10): 1810-1814, 2010.
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Plastic litter accounts for 50-80% of waste items stranded on beaches, floating on the ocean surface and lodged in the seabed. Organic pollutants can be absorbed onto plastic particles from sea water, attached to their surfaces or included in the plastic matrix as additives. Such chemicals may be transported to remote regions by buoyant plastics and ocean currents. We have estimated mass fluxes of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) to the Arctic via the main ocean currents and compared them to those in the dissolved state and in air. Substance fluxes with atmospheric or sea water currents account for several tons per year, whereas those mediated by plastics are four to six orders of magnitude smaller. However, the significance of various pollutant transport routes does not depend only on absolute mass fluxes but also on bioaccumulation in marine food chains.
- Frias, J.P.G.L., Sobral, P., and Ferreira, A.M. Organic pollutants in microplastics from two beaches of the Portuguese coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(11): 1988-1992, 2010.
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Microplastics pose a threat to coastal environments due to their capacity to adsorb persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These particles (less than 5 mm in size) are potentially dangerous to marine species due to magnification risk over the food chain. Samples were collected from two Portuguese beaches and sorted in four classes to relate the adsorption capacity of pollutants with color and age. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDTs were analysed on pellets through gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and types of plastic were identified using Fourier transformed infra-red spectroscopy (micro-FTIR). Microplastics were mostly polyethylene and polypropylene. Regarding sizes, some fibres ranged from 1 to 5 µm in diameter and were 500 µm in length. The majority of samples collected had sizes above 200 µm. Black pellets, unlike aged pellets, had the highest concentrations of POPs except for PAHs in Fonte da Telha beach. PAHs with higher concentrations were pyrene, phenantrene, chrysene and fluoranthene. Higher concentrations of PCBs were found for congeners 18, 31, 138 and 187. Further investigation is necessary to understand the relationship between plastic degradation and adsorption for different pollutants.
- Ashton, K., Holmes, L., and Turner, A. Association of metals with plastic production pellets in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(11): 2050-2055, 2010.
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Plastic production pellets sampled from four beaches along a stretch of coastline (south Devon, SW England) and accompanying, loosely adhered and entrapped material removed ultrasonically have been analysed for major metals (Al, Fe, Mn) and trace metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, Cd, Co, Cr, Mo, Sb, Sn, U) following acid digestion. In most cases, metal concentrations in composite pellet samples from each site were less than but within an order of magnitude of corresponding concentrations in the pooled extraneous materials. However, normalisation of data with respect to Al revealed enrichment of Cd and Pb in plastic pellets at two sites. These observations are not wholly due to the association of pellets with fine material that is resistant to ultrasonication since new polyethylene pellets suspended in a harbour for 8 weeks accumulated metals from sea water through adsorption and precipitation. The environmental implications and potential applications of these findings are discussed.
- Hirai, H. et al. Organic micropollutants in marine plastics debris from the open ocean and remote and urban beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(8): 1683-1692, 2011.
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To understand the spatial variation in concentrations and compositions of organic micropollutants in marine plastic debris and their sources, we analyzed plastic fragments (~10 mm) from the open ocean and from remote and urban beaches. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), alkylphenols and bisphenol A were detected in the fragments at concentrations from 1 to 10,000 ng/g. Concentrations showed large piece-to-piece variability. Hydrophobic organic compounds such as PCBs and PAHs were sorbed from seawater to the plastic fragments. PCBs are most probably derived from legacy pollution. PAHs showed a petrogenic signature, suggesting the sorption of PAHs from oil slicks. Nonylphenol, bisphenol A, and PBDEs came mainly from additives and were detected at high concentrations in some fragments both from remote and urban beaches and the open ocean.
- O'Brine, T. and Thompson, R.C. Degradation of plastic carrier bags in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(12): 2279-2283, 2010.
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There is considerable concern about the hazards that plastic debris presents to wildlife. Use of polymers that degrade more quickly than conventional plastics presents a possible solution to this problem. Here we investigate breakdown of two oxo-biodegradable plastics, compostable plastic and standard polyethylene in the marine environment. Tensile strength of all materials decreased during exposure, but at different rates. Compostable plastic disappeared from our test rig between 16 and 24 weeks whereas approximately 98% of the other plastics remained after 40 weeks. Some plastics require UV light to degrade. Transmittance of UV through oxo-biodegradable and standard polyethylene decreased as a consequence of fouling such that these materials received ~90% less UV light after 40 weeks. Our data indicate that compostable plastics may degrade relatively quickly compared to oxo-biodegradable and conventional plastics. While degradable polymers offer waste management solutions, there are limitations to their effectiveness in reducing hazards associated with plastic debris.
- Sivan, A. New perspectives in plastic biodegradation. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 22(3): 422-426, 2011.
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During the past 50 years new plastic materials, in various applications, have gradually replaced the traditional metal, wood, leather materials. Ironically, the most preferred property of plastics – durability – exerts also the major environmental threat. Recycling has practically failed to provide a safe solution for disposal of plastic waste (only 5% out of 1 trillion plastic bags, annually produced in the US alone, are being recycled). Since the most utilized plastic is polyethylene (PE; ca. 140 million tons/year), any reduction in the accumulation of PE waste alone would have a major impact on the overall reduction of the plastic waste in the environment. Since PE is considered to be practically inert, efforts were made to isolate unique microorganisms capable of utilizing synthetic polymers. Recent data showed that biodegradation of plastic waste with selected microbial strains became a viable solution.
- Roy, P.K., Hakkarainen, M., Varma, I.K., and Albertsson, A.-C. Degradable polyethylene: fantasy or reality. Environmental Science and Technology 45(10): 4217-4227, 2011.
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Plastic waste disposal is one of the serious environmental issues being tackled by our society today. Polyethylene, particularly in packaging films, has received criticism as it tends to accumulate over a period of time, leaving behind an undesirable visual footprint. Degradable polyethylene, which would enter the eco-cycle harmlessly through biodegradation would be a desirable solution to this problem. However, the 'degradable polyethylene' which is presently being promoted as an environmentally friendly alternative to the nondegradable counterpart, does not seem to meet this criterion. This article reviews the state of the art on the aspect of degradability of polyethylene containing pro-oxidants, and more importantly the effect these polymers could have on the environment in the long run. On exposure to heat, light, and oxygen, these polymers disintegrate into small fragments, thereby reducing or increasing the visual presence. However, these fragments can remain in the environment for prolonged time periods. This article also outlines important questions, particularly in terms of time scale of complete degradation, environmental fate of the polymer residues, and possible accumulation of toxins, the answers to which need to be established prior to accepting these polymers as environmentally benign alternatives to their nondegradable equivalents. It appears from the existing literature that our search for biodegradable polyethylene has not yet been realized.
- Lithner, D., Larsson, Å., and Dave, G. Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition. Science of The Total Environment 409(18): 3309-3324, 2011.
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Plastics constitute a large material group with a global annual production that has doubled in 15 years (245 million tonnes in 2008). Plastics are present everywhere in society and the environment, especially the marine environment, where large amounts of plastic waste accumulate. The knowledge of human and environmental hazards and risks from chemicals associated with the diversity of plastic products is very limited. Most chemicals used for producing plastic polymers are derived from non-renewable crude oil, and several are hazardous. These may be released during the production, use and disposal of the plastic product. In this study the environmental and health hazards of chemicals used in 55 thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers were identified and compiled. A hazard ranking model was developed for the hazard classes and categories in the EU classification and labelling (CLP) regulation which is based on the UN Globally Harmonized System. The polymers were ranked based on monomer hazard classifications, and initial assessments were made. The polymers that ranked as most hazardous are made of monomers classified as mutagenic and/or carcinogenic (category 1A or 1B). These belong to the polymer families of polyurethanes, polyacrylonitriles, polyvinyl chloride, epoxy resins, and styrenic copolymers. All have a large global annual production (1-37 million tonnes). A considerable number of polymers (31 out of 55) are made of monomers that belong to the two worst of the ranking model's five hazard levels, i.e. levels IV-V. The polymers that are made of level IV monomers and have a large global annual production (1-5 million tonnes) are phenol formaldehyde resins, unsaturated polyesters, polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate, and urea-formaldehyde resins. This study has identified hazardous substances used in polymer production for which the risks should be evaluated for decisions on the need for risk reduction measures, substitution, or even phase out.
- Cho, D.O. Removing derelict fishing gear from the deep seabed of the East Sea. Marine Policy 35(5): 610-614, 2011.
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The East Sea, with an average depth of 1700 m, has long been subject to heavy fishing pressure, resulting in derelict fishing gear. Most derelict fishing gears, such as fishing nets, fishing ropes, and crab pots, sink to the seabed and do not degrade. This gear results in "ghost fishing," which has adverse impacts on deep benthic habitats. Recently, the Korean government has started to remove derelict fishing gears from the deep seabed of the East Sea by bottom trawling with heavy hooks (50-80 kg) and ropes. A total of 207.8 and 252.2 tons of marine debris in 2009 and 2010, respectively, were removed from the seabed, most of which were derelict fishing gears. Contrary to monitoring surveys and clean-up in shallow waters, removal of marine debris from remote deep habitats is much more difficult and dangerous for removal crews.
- Thompson, R.C., La Belle, B.E., Bouwman, H. and Neretin, L. 2011. Marine Debris: Defining a Global Environmental Challenge. Prepared for the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) of the Global Environment Facility. GEF/C.40/Inf.14. 28pp.
Open Access >>
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Marine habitats worldwide are contaminated with man-made items of debris. Plastic items consistently represent the major category of marine debris by material type on a global basis. This debris is unsightly, it damages fisheries and tourism, kills and injures a wide range of marine life, causes severe navigational problems, has the potential to transport potentially harmful chemicals and invasive species and represents a threat to human health. This document examines the sources of this debris, identifies its impacts on marine ecosystems and economies, proposes a framework for responding to marine debris issues, and suggests potential GEF actions. The evidence presented on global occurrence including accumulation in the areas beyond national jurisdiction, persistence, and transboundary sources, movements and impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystems compounded by the emerging data on potential impacts on the fate of persistent organic pollutants and transfer of alien species, makes a strong case for considering marine debris as a global environmental problem. The focus of this document is on land-based sources and types of debris which represent the major unaddressed debris components in many regions, but measures to address sea-based sources such as pollution from ships and abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear while sector-specific can be treated with the same framework developed in the document. The problems of marine debris are now recognized internationally alongside other major global challenges facing marine environment such as loss of biodiversity, acidification, sea level rise to name a few. Current awareness and implementation of best practices in addressing the causes of marine debris are primarily centered on end-of-pipe solutions. However, there are considerable synergistic opportunities from tackling the issues of marine debris in terms of conserving habitats, biodiversity and fisheries, reducing our reliance on non-renewable resources, limiting global carbon emissions and waste flows. The underlying causes that result in plastic debris entering the sea from the land lie within unsustainable production and consumption patterns, including the design and marketing of products globally with little regard for their environmental fate, their ability to be recycled in the locations, where sold, compounded by often inadequate waste management practices and irresponsible behavior. Often there is geographical separation between production in relatively developed economies and consumption/disposal which is global. From a life-cycle perspective, current linear use of plastics from production, through a typically short-lived single-usage stage to disposal is the main cause and, at the same time, the main opportunity to tackle the marine debris problem. This STAP Advisory Document advocates the use of a regional approach oriented towards the needs and perspectives of the consumers and users of marine debris sources. Solutions should be identified through cooperation between industry, government and consumer and consider all five R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover, and Redesign) in a regionally relevant context. Potential actions to consider in this context encompass any or all parts of the supply and value chain and the full life cycle of the product. To consider these potential actions in relation to each other, STAP proposes a framework consisting of a series of key steps in order to achieve a reduction in the quantity of waste material being produced; it includes five steps: problem identification, stakeholder dialogue among supply chain entities, facilitation, identification of knowledge gaps, development of institutional mechanism and strategic planning.
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