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- McCay, B.J. and Jones, P.J.S. Marine protected areas and the governance of marine ecosystems and fisheries. Conservation Biology 25(6): 1130-1133, 2011.
- Edgar, G.J. Does the global network of marine protected areas provide an adequate safety net for marine biodiversity? Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21(4): 313-316, 2011.
- Ban, N.C., Adams, V.M., Almany, G.R., Ban, S., Cinner, J.E., McCook, L.J., Mills, M., Pressey, R.L., and White, A. Designing, implementing and managing marine protected areas: Emerging trends and opportunities for coral reef nations. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 408(1-2): 21-31, 2011.
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Coral reefs are in dire need of effective governance, yet the science and planning of coral reef protected areas largely stem from wealthy, developed nations, with very different social, economic, and cultural characteristics than the nations in which most coral reefs occur. Much has been written about coral reefs and the use of marine protected areas (MPAs) as a management tool, but emerging trends and recommendations have not been adequately synthesized for the context of developing nations. We found that 60% of studies on MPA design and planning are from North America, Australia, Europe and the Mediterranean. As a result, many recommendations about how best to design, implement and manage coral reef protected areas may need to be adapted to address the needs of other nations. Based on the literature and our experiences, we review three emerging trends in MPA design and management, and relate these to the context of coral reef developing nations. First, MPA design is evolving to merge community (usually bottom-up) and regional (usually top-down) planning approaches. Second, the increasing recognition that social and ecological systems are tightly coupled is leading to planning and management of MPAs that better incorporate the human dimensions of reef systems and their linkages with reef ecology. Finally, there has been a trend toward adaptive management of MPAs and the emergence of related ideas about adaptive planning. These three trends provide crucial and much needed opportunities for improving MPAs and their effectiveness in coral reef nations.
- Marinesque, S., Kaplan, D.M., and Rodwell, L.D. Global implementation of marine protected areas: Is the developing world being left behind? Marine Policy 36(3): 727-737, 2012.
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While the global network of marine protected areas (MPAs) has recently been evaluated in the light of bio-geographic targets, there has been no attempt to evaluate the relative conservation efforts made by the different nations with regards to their level of socio-economic development. Using information mostly gathered from the world database on protected areas (WDPA), this paper gives a comparative assessment of MPA progress in countries from different economic categories, ranging from advanced economies to least developed countries (LDCs). Potentially explanatory socio-economic and environmental factors, such as fishing activity and existence of vulnerable marine ecosystems, for variability between nations in the level of MPA implementation are also explored. Existing MPA databases demonstrate a clear gap between developed and developing nations in MPA establishment, with advanced economies accounting for two thirds of the global MPA network. Patterns of MPA use, however, remain extremely heterogeneous between countries within each development group. International agreements on marine conservation, above and beyond the influence of country socio-economic and environmental profiles, are identified as a stimulating factor to MPA implementation. The level dependence on marine resource extraction appears to impede MPA implementation, though the relationship is not statistically significant due to large heterogeneity among countries. Leading developed nations increasingly use MPAs to designate integrated and adaptive management areas, and implementation of large 'no-take' reserves in relatively-pristine overseas areas continues to accelerate. These analyses highlight certain limitations regarding our ability to assess the true conservation effectiveness of the existing global MPA network and the need for improved indicators of MPA restrictions and management efforts.
- Jentoft, S., Chuenpagdee, R., and Pascual-Fernandez, J.J. What are MPAs for: On goal formation and displacement. Ocean and Coastal Management 54(1): 75-83, 2011.
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are established for various purposes. Some are aimed at protection, some are intended as resource management tools, while others imply both of these objectives, as well as others. Regardless of the stated goals, the same MPA can mean different things to different people, and these meanings may be inconsistent. In practice, MPA goals are not always stated clearly, and even if they are, they do not necessary align well with what the different actors have in mind. Moreover, the stated goals are not always those that govern the actual operation of MPAs. The priorities of goals may also change over time for stakeholders and for MPAs. In this paper we argue that the goals of MPAs should not be assumed a priori but should be researched empirically. Thus, before we can answer why MPAs succeed or fail in reaching their goals, we must ask what these goals are in the first place and how they came into existence. How are they, for instance, established, negotiated and agreed upon among stakeholders? How do they reflect particular interests, perspectives and power differentials of those involved? Here, we provide a framework for how to analyze the formation, complexity, and displacement of goals in MPAs, presenting three case studies as illustration.
- Mumby, P.J., Elliott, I.A., Eakin, C.M., Skirving, W., Paris, C.B., Edwards, H.J., Enriquez, S., Iglesias-Prieto, R., Cherubin, L.M., and Stevens, J.R. Reserve design for uncertain responses of coral reefs to climate change. Ecology Letters 14(2): 132-140, 2011.
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Rising sea temperatures cause mass coral bleaching and threaten reefs worldwide. We show how maps of variations in thermal stress can be used to help manage reefs for climate change. We map proxies of chronic and acute thermal stress and develop evidence-based hypotheses for the future response of corals to each stress regime. We then incorporate spatially realistic predictions of larval connectivity among reefs of the Bahamas and apply novel reserve design algorithms to create reserve networks for a changing climate. We show that scales of larval dispersal are large enough to connect reefs from desirable thermal stress regimes into a reserve network. Critically, we find that reserve designs differ according to the anticipated scope for phenotypic and genetic adaptation in corals, which remains uncertain. Attempts to provide a complete reserve design that hedged against different evolutionary outcomes achieved limited success, which emphasises the importance of considering the scope for adaptation explicitly. Nonetheless, 15% of reserve locations were selected under all evolutionary scenarios, making them a high priority for early designation. Our approach allows new insights into coral holobiont adaptation to be integrated directly into an adaptive approach to management.
- Hansen, G.J.A., Ban, N.C., Jones, M.L., Kaufman, L., Panes, H.M., Yasué, M., and Vincent, A.C.J. Hindsight in marine protected area selection: A comparison of ecological representation arising from opportunistic and systematic approaches. Biological Conservation 144(6): 1866-1875, 2011.
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Systematic approaches to site selection for marine protected areas (MPAs) are often favored over opportunistic approaches as a means to meet conservation objectives efficiently. In this study, we compared analytically the conservation value of these two approaches. We locate this study in Danajon Bank, central Philippines, where many MPAs were established opportunistically based on community preference, with few if any contributions from biophysical data. We began by identifying the biophysical data that would have been available when the first MPA was created in Danajon Bank (1995). We next used these data with the reserve selection software Marxan to identify MPAs that covered the same area as is protected under the current set of MPAs (0.32% of the total study area) and that would protect the greatest number of conservation targets at the lowest cost. We finally compared the conservation value of the current MPAs to the value of those selected by Marxan. Because of the dearth of biophysical data available in 1995 and the small area currently under protection, Marxan identified multiple configurations of MPAs that would protect the same percentage of conservation targets, with little differentiation among sites. Further, we discovered that the costs of obtaining and analyzing these data to be used for conservation planning would have been large relative to resources typically available to conservation planners in developing countries. Finally, we found that the current set of MPAs protected more ecological features than would be expected by chance, although not as many as could be protected using a systematic approach. Our results suggest that an opportunistic approach can be a valuable component of conservation planning, especially when biophysical data are sparse and community acceptance is a critical factor affecting the success of an MPA.
- Scholz, A.J., Steinback, C., Kruse, S.A., Mertens, M., and Silverman, H. Incorporation of spatial and economic analyses of human-use data in the design of marine protected areas. Conservation Biology 25(3): 485-492, 2011.
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Social, economic, and ecological criteria contribute to the successful design, implementation, and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). In the context of California's Marine Life Protection Act Initiative, we developed a set of methods for collecting, compiling, and analyzing data about the spatial extent and relative economic importance of commercial and recreational fishing. We interviewed 174 commercial fishers who represented the major fisheries in the initiative's north-central coast region, which extends from Point Arena south to Pigeon Point. These fishers provided data that we used to map the extent of each of the fishing grounds, to weight the relative importance of areas within the grounds, to characterize the operating costs of each fishery, and to analyze the potential economic losses associated with proposed marine protected areas. A regional stakeholder group used the maps and impact analyses in conjunction with other data sets to iteratively identify economic and ecological trade-offs in designations of different areas as MPAs at regional, port, and fishery extents. Their final proposed MPA network designated 20% of state waters as MPAs. Potential net economic loss ranged from 1.7% to 14.2% in the first round of network design and totaled 6.3% in the final round of design. This process is a case study in the application of spatial analysis to validate and integrate local stakeholder knowledge in marine planning.
- Grafton, R.Q., Akter, S., and Kompas, T. A policy-enabling framework for the ex-ante evaluation of marine protected areas. Ocean and Coastal Management 54(6): 478-487, 2011.
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A marine protected area (MPA) potentially generates a wide range of consumptive use, non-consumptive use and non-use values that include: critical habitat protection, conservation of marine biodiversity, recovery of threatened and endangered marine species, increased recreational benefits and increased biomass of harvested marine species. To help assess whether such values exceed the potential costs of MPAs, this paper provides a policy-enabling framework that reviews the existing theoretical and practical instruments and approaches that can be used in the ex-ante evaluation of MPAs. This framework is in three parts. First, a range of alternative monetary and non-monetary techniques to estimate three key economic benefits of MPAs: consumptive, non-consumptive use and non-use values are presented. Second, three decision protocols that can be applied to determine the desirability of establishing MPAs are described. Third, caveats of these approaches and the necessity to accommodate social needs of the communities are provided. The framework shows that biological and ecological considerations together with economic viability and socio-economic factors can and should be taken into account when deciding about when and where to establish MPAs and of what size.
- Hooker, S. K., Cañadas, A., Hyrenbach, K. D., Corrigan, C., Polovina, J. J., and Reeves, R. R. Making protected area networks effective for marine top predators. Endangered Species Research 13(3): 203-218, 2011.
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The design of ecological networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) is generally based on the identification of areas of high abundance for species of conservation concern or focal biodiversity targets. We discuss the applicability of this approach to marine top predators and contend that the design of comprehensive and effective MPA networks requires the following 7 principles: (1) the use of wildlife-habitat modelling and spatial mapping approaches to develop testable model predictions of species distribution and abundance; (2) the incorporation of life-history and behavioural data into the development of these predictive habitat models; (3) the explicit assessment of threats in the design and monitoring process for single- or multi-species MPAs; (4) the serious consideration of dynamic MPA designs to encompass species which use well-defined but spatially dynamic ocean features; (5) the integration of demographic assessment in MPA planning, allowing provision of advice to policy makers, ranging from no to full protection; (6) the clear articulation of management and monitoring plans allowing retrospective evaluation of MPA effectiveness; and (7) the adoption of an adaptive management approach, essential in the light of ongoing and anticipated ecosystem changes and species range shifts in response to climate change.
- McCrea-Strub, A., Zeller, D., Rashid Sumaila, U., Nelson, J., Balmford, A., and Pauly, D. Understanding the cost of establishing marine protected areas. Marine Policy 35(1): 1-9, 2011.
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While the recurrent cost of managing marine protected areas (MPAs) has been documented and estimated, there has been virtually no attempt to quantify the cost of establishing MPAs in the first place. This lack of attention is likely the result of the complexity of the process, involving often uncoordinated efforts of a multitude of governmental and non-governmental entities over a protracted period of time with no clear start and end-point. Using information gathered from a representative subset of MPAs worldwide, this paper presents the first attempt to identify and describe the various components, and explore potential predictors of the total funds spent in the course of establishment. The thirteen MPAs studied vary in size (from <1 to >360,000 km²), location (including near- and offshore in both developed and developing countries), objectives and degree of protection. Variation in MPA start-up costs is shown to be most significantly related to both MPA size and the duration of the establishment phase. Development of a method to estimate the potential cost of establishing proposed MPAs should play a crucial role in the conservation planning process.
- Adams, V.M., Mills, M., Jupiter, S.D., and Pressey, R.L. Improving social acceptability of marine protected area networks: A method for estimating opportunity costs to multiple gear types in both fished and currently unfished areas. Biological Conservation 144(1): 350-361, 2011.
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We present a novel method for calculating the opportunity costs to fishers from their displacement by the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). We used a fishing community in Kubulau District, Fiji to demonstrate this method. We modelled opportunity costs as a function of food fish abundance and probability of catch, based on gear type and market value of species. Count models (including Poisson, negative binomial and two zero-inflated models) were used to predict spatial abundance of preferred target fish species and were validated against field surveys. A profit model was used to investigate the effect of restricted access to transport on costs to fishers. Spatial distributions of fish within the three most frequently sighted food fish families (Acanthuridae, Lutjanidae, Scaridae) varied, with greatest densities of Lutjanidae and Acanthuridae on barrier forereefs and greatest densities of Scaridae on submerged reefs. Modelled opportunity cost indicated that highest costs to fishers arise from restricting access to the barrier forereefs. We included our opportunity cost model in Marxan, a decision support tool used for MPA design, to examine potential MPA configurations for Kubulau District, Fiji Islands. We identified optimum areas for protection in Kubulau with: (a) the current MPA network locked in place; and (b) a clean-slate approach. Our method of modelling opportunity cost gives an unbiased estimate for multiple gear types in a marine environment and can be applied to other regions using existing species data.
- Ban, N.C., Adams, V., Pressey, R.L., and Hicks, J. Promise and problems for estimating management costs of marine protected areas. Conservation Letters 4(3): 241-252, 2011.
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Management costs are rarely taken into account in marine protected area (MPA) design. We estimate the management costs of two different protection scenarios within a large proposed MPA, the Coral Sea in Australia. We use three methods to estimate costs: an existing model of global MPA management costs; a new statistical model based on Australian MPA management costs; and expert estimates that extrapolate from the adjacent Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Both the new statistical model and expert estimates were relevant to both protection scenarios and indicate that a single large no-take reserve is less expensive to manage than a multiple-use MPA of the same area with a 30% no-take component. Expenses associated with compliance drive the difference in management cost between scenarios. Estimating management costs of MPA scenarios adds an important, though still challenging, financial perspective to MPA design.
- Pollnac, R. and Seara, T. Factors influencing success of Marine Protected Areas in the Visayas, Philippines as related to increasing protected area coverage. Environmental Management 47(4): 584-592, 2011.
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Throughout the world there is a general consensus among environmentalists that there should be an increase in the amount of marine area that should be reserved in marine protected areas (MPAs). In fact, the 1998 Philippines Fishery Code indicates a need for designation of at least 15% of municipal waters for fish refuges or sanctuaries. Such an increase in area would take productive fishing areas away from fishing communities that can ill-afford the loss. The larger the protected area, there will be a greater number of people impacted. This article examines the relationship between factors that influence the success of Community Based MPA (CBMPA) performance in the Visayas, Philippines and their significance in efforts to increase the size of protected areas.
- Gruss, A., Kaplan, D.M., Guenette, S., Roberts, C.M., and Botsford, L.W. Consequences of adult and juvenile movement for marine protected areas. Biological Conservation 144(2): 692-702, 2011.
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Adult and juvenile mobility has a considerable influence on the functioning of marine protected areas. It is recognized that adult and juvenile movement reduces the core benefits of protected areas, namely protecting the full age-structure of marine populations, while at the same time perhaps improving fisheries yield over the no-reserve situation through export of individuals from protected areas. Nevertheless, the study of the consequences of movement on protected area functioning is unbalanced. Significant attention has been paid to the influence of certain movement patterns, such as diffusive movement and home ranges, while the impacts of others, such as density-dependent movements and ontogenetic migrations, have been relatively ignored. Here we review the diversity of density-independent and density-dependent movement patterns, as well as what is currently known about their consequences for the conservation and fisheries effects of marine protected areas. We highlight a number of 'partially addressed' issues in marine protected area research, such as the effects of reserves targeting specific life phases, and a number of essentially unstudied issues, such as density-dependent movements, nomadism, ontogenetic migrations, behavioral polymorphism and 'dynamic' reserves that adjust location as a realtime response to habitat changes. Assessing these issues will be essential to creating effective marine protected area networks for mobile species and accurately assessing reserve impacts on these species.
- Fitzsimons, J.A. Mislabeling marine protected areas and why it matters – a case study of Australia. Conservation Letters 4(5): 340-345, 2011.
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As part of international obligations and national policies, most nations are working toward establishing comprehensive, adequate, and representative systems of terrestrial and marine protected areas (MPAs). Assigning internationally recognized International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) protected area categories to these MPAs is an important part of this process. The most recent guidance from the IUCN clearly states that commercial or recreational fishing is inappropriate in MPAs designated as category II (National Park). However, in at least two developed countries with long histories of protected area development (e.g., Canada and Australia), category II is being assigned to a number of MPAs that allow some form of commercial or recreational fishing. Using Australia as a case study, this article explores the legal and policy implications of applying protected area categories to MPAs and the consequences for misapplying them. As the Australian Government is about to embark on potentially one of the largest expansions of MPA networks in the world, ensuring the application of IUCN categories is both transparent and consistent with international practice will be important, both for the sake of international conventions and to accurately track conservation progress.
- Hobday, A.J. Sliding baselines and shuffling species: implications of climate change for marine conservation. Marine Ecology 32(3): 392-403, 2011.
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The concept of shifting or sliding baselines refers to the way that significant changes to an ecological system are mistakenly measured against a previous baseline, which may be significantly different from the original state of the system. The concept assumes an 'original state' exists and that a return to that state might be possible, if it could be determined and there was sufficient control of human interference. The concept has been important in both marine conservation planning and fisheries management. However, long periods of exploitation, observed and projected climate change, and the disappearance of some environments, suggest that a return to an original state is unlikely to be achievable in many systems. In addition, protection based on static marine protected areas is unlikely to meet common conservation objectives, as species and habitats are moving and species assemblages shuffling with the changing climate. An alternative to modeling single species distribution changes is to examine change in environmental proxies, such as sea surface temperature (SST). Here, projected changes in SST for the period 2063-2065 from a downscaled ocean model are used to illustrate the similarity to, and movements of, present pelagic environments within conservation planning areas off Eastern Australia. The future environment of small planning areas differs from their present environment and static protected areas might not protect range-changing species. Climate-aware conservation planning should consider the use of mobile protected areas to afford protection to species' changing their distribution, and develop conservation objectives that are not underpinned by a return to historical baselines.
- Watson, J.R., Siegel, D.A., Kendall, B.E., Mitarai, S., Rassweiller, A., and Gaines, S.D. Identifying critical regions in small-world marine metapopulations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [USA] 108(43): E907-E913, 2011.
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The precarious state of many nearshore marine ecosystems has prompted the use of marine protected areas as a tool for management and conservation. However, there remains substantial debate over their design and, in particular, how to best account for the spatial dynamics of nearshore marine species. Many commercially important nearshore marine species are sedentary as adults, with limited home ranges. It is as larvae that they disperse greater distances, traveling with ocean currents sometimes hundreds of kilometers. As a result, these species exist in spatially complex systems of connected subpopulations. Here, we explicitly account for the mutual dependence of subpopulations and approach protected area design in terms of network robustness. Our goal is to characterize the topology of nearshore metapopulation networks and their response to perturbation, and to identify critical subpopulations whose protection would reduce the risk for stock collapse. We define metapopulation networks using realistic estimates of larval dispersal generated from ocean circulation simulations and spatially explicit metapopulation models, and we then explore their robustness using node-removal simulation experiments. Nearshore metapopulations show small-world network properties, and we identify a set of highly connected hub subpopulations whose removal maximally disrupts the metapopulation network. Protecting these subpopulations reduces the risk for systemic failure and stock collapse. Our focus on catastrophe avoidance provides a unique perspective for spatial marine planning and the design of marine protected areas.
- Russ, G.R. and Alcala, A.C. Enhanced biodiversity beyond marine reserve boundaries: The cup spillith over. Ecological Applications 21(1): 241-250, 2011.
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Overfishing can have detrimental effects on marine biodiversity and the structure of marine ecosystems. No-take marine reserves (NTMRs) are much advocated as a means of protecting biodiversity and ecosystem structure from overharvest. In contrast to terrestrial protected areas, NTMRs are not only expected to conserve or recover biodiversity and ecosystems within their boundaries, but also to enhance biodiversity beyond their boundaries by exporting species richness and more complex biological communities. Here we show that species richness of large predatory reef fish increased fourfold and 11-fold inside two Philippine no-take marine reserves over 14 and 25 years, respectively. Outside one reserve (Apo) the species richness also increased. This increase beyond the Apo reserve boundary was 78% higher closer to the boundary (200–250 m) than farther from it (250–500 m). The increase in richness beyond the boundary could not be explained by improvements over time in habitat or prey availability. Furthermore, community composition of predatory fish outside but close to (200–250 m) the Apo reserve became very similar to that inside the reserve over time, almost converging with it in multivariate space after 26 years of reserve protection. This is consistent with the suggestion that, as community composition inside Apo reserve increased in complexity, this complexity spilled over the boundary into nearby fished areas. Clearly, the spillover of species richness and community complexity is a direct consequence of the spillover of abundance of multiple species. However, this spillover of species richness and community complexity demonstrates an important benefit of biodiversity and ecosystem export from reserves, and it provides hope that reserves can help to reverse the decline of marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
- Aburto-Oropeza, O., Erisman, B., Galland, G. R., Mascareñas-Osorio, I., Sala, E., and Ezcurra, E. Large recovery of fish biomass in a no-take marine reserve. PLoS ONE 6(8): art. e23601, 2011.
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No-take marine reserves are effective management tools used to restore fish biomass and community structure in areas depleted by overfishing. Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) was created in 1995 and is the only well enforced no-take area in the Gulf of California, Mexico, mostly because of widespread support from the local community. In 1999, four years after the establishment of the reserve, there were no significant differences in fish biomass between CPNP (0.75 t ha-1 on average) and other marine protected areas or open access areas in the Gulf of California. By 2009, total fish biomass at CPNP had increased to 4.24 t ha-1 (absolute biomass increase of 3.49 t ha-1, or 463%), and the biomass of top predators and carnivores increased by 11 and 4 times, respectively. However, fish biomass did not change significantly in other marine protected areas or open access areas over the same time period. The absolute increase in fish biomass at CPNP within a decade is the largest measured in a marine reserve worldwide, and it is likely due to a combination of social (strong community leadership, social cohesion, effective enforcement) and ecological factors. The recovery of fish biomass inside CPNP has resulted in significant economic benefits, indicating that community-managed marine reserves are a viable solution to unsustainable coastal development and fisheries collapse in the Gulf of California and elsewhere.
- Afonso, P., Fontes, J., and Santos, R.S. Small marine reserves can offer long term protection to an endangered fish. Biological Conservation 144(11): 2739-2744, 2011.
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The protection of exploited species offered by marine reserves is maximised if individual fish live within the boundaries of the reserve for most of their lives. The direct benefit of this protection, the so called 'reserve effect' is the build-up of biomass through an increase in individual numbers and size. This effect can take several years depending on the life history traits of the target species. However, empirical studies on individual fish spatial behaviour at temporal scales long enough to be compatible with that of invoking the reserve effect are still virtually lacking. We studied the inter-annual patterns of habitat use of the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus), an endangered reef fish predator, using passive acoustic telemetry inside and around a small marine reserve in the Azores, mid-north Atlantic. All 11 individuals resided in the reserve year-round for up to 5 years. During these periods, fish were detected nearly every day and utilised stable core activity areas. Two smaller fish apparently abandoned the area after some time, probably relocating outside the reserve. Our results indicate that even small marine reserves can promote the long-term recovery of some endangered species if the long-term behaviour (i.e. site fidelity) of individuals is appropriate. This result bears direct implications for most existing coastal marine reserves, given that they fall into the small size range and many overexploited reef fish species may be highly site attached.
- Lau, D.C.C., Dumont, C.P., Lui, G.C.S., and Qiu, J.W. Effectiveness of a small marine reserve in southern China in protecting the harvested sea urchin Anthocidaris crassispina: A mark-and-recapture study. Biological Conservation 144(11): 2674-2683, 2011.
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Assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas requires information on population characteristics of the target species. This study used a mark-and-recapture approach to examine the population structure, individual growth, and mortality of the commercially harvested short-spined sea urchin Anthocidaris crassispina in a small (18 ha) no-take marine reserve and two nearby non-protected sites. Sea urchins were tagged with fluorochrome and recaptured 1 year later. The size-at-age relationship was modelled using the Tanaka function, and mortality estimated using an exponential decay function coupled with the Tanaka growth parameters. The urchin population in the reserve consisted of a higher proportion of older individuals than populations in the two non-protected areas, however, large sea urchins (>50 mm) were absent in the reserve. Sea urchins occurring at high densities (>15 ind. m-2) in the reserve grew much slower than those outside the reserve, suggesting a density-dependant effect on growth. Growth ring analysis from the rotulae supported the mark-and-recapture results with the maximum number of rings being higher in the reserve than in non-protected sites. Urchins with the same number of growth rings inside the reserve were smaller than those outside the reserve. Within the reserve, urchins with the same number of growth rings were smaller at locations with higher urchin density. Annual mortality rate was lower in the reserve population than in the non-protected populations. These results illustrate the effectiveness of this small reserve in protecting A. crassispina from fishing. However, further study is required to examine whether a high density of small/old individuals is better than a medium density of large individuals in order to maximize the potential spillover of larvae by such small urchin refugia to the surrounding overfished areas.
- Graham, N.A.J. et al. From microbes to people: Tractable benefits of no-take areas for coral reefs. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 49: 105-136, 2011.
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The number of no-take marine protected areas (here referred to as no-take areas, NTAs) on coral reefs has increased considerably in recent decades. Coincident with accelerating degradation of coral reefs, expectations of the benefits that NTAs can provide for coastal societies and sustainability of marine ecosystems has grown. These include increasing abundance of reef organisms both inside and outside NTAs, protecting key ecosystem functions, and providing social and economic benefits through improved fisheries and tourism. However, there is a lack of convincing evidence for many of these expectations. This is the first attempt to synthesize all potential costs and benefits of coral reef NTAs and critically examine evidence of their impacts on both ecosystems and societies. NTAs with high compliance consistently increase the diversity, density and biomass of exploited reef fishes and certain groups of motile invertebrates within their boundaries and have benefits for reef-associated tourism. Some NTAs provide small increases in the abundance of corals and decreases in macroalgal cover. The effects of NTAs on genetic diversity and connectivity among meta-populations are variable or as yet unquantified. There is limited evidence of NTAs providing social benefits through increased fishery yields and tourism revenue. There are examples of both positive and negative effects on social well-being. Finally, sharks, marine megafauna and microbial communities showed few tangible benefits from NTAs. Substantial gaps in the science of coral reef NTAs remain, especially in their capacity to provide socioeconomic benefits. A crucial research priority is understanding how the cumulative effects of climate change will influence the various benefits that NTAs provide. To be effective, NTAs must be used in conjunction with a range of other management tools and applied according to local environmental and societal contexts.
- Bohnsack, J.A. Impacts of Florida coastal protected areas on recreational world records for spotted seatrout, red drum, black drum, and common snook. Bulletin of Marine Science 87(4): 939-970, 2011.
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The present study examines the influence of coastal marine protected areas (MPAs) and statewide fishing regulations on recreational trophy fisheries for four important estuarine game fishes in Florida, where ~59% of the mainland coast consists of MPAs. The distribution of International Game Fish Association (IGFA) recreational world records achieved over 70 years (1939-2009) were correlated with the strength and duration of fishery restrictions in MPAs. No difference in record density was detected between coastal areas inside and outside of MPAs where fishing was managed by statewide regulations. However, 74% (n = 143) of all records for three species were concentrated near the two MPAs that had additional fishery restrictions. The highest concentration was along ~11% of the mainland coast at Cape Canaveral (CAN) near MPAs closed to all fishing since 1962. It included 42% of spotted seatrout [Cynoscion nebulosus (Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830)], 55% of red drum [Sciaenops ocellatus (Linnaeus, 1766)], and 69% of black drum [Pogonias cromis (Linnaeus, 1766)] Florida records. Everglades National Park (ENP) had the second highest concentration with 7% of spotted seatrout, 32% of red drum, and 24% of black drum records caught along ~9% of the mainland coast. ENP partially limited fishing starting in 1980 by establishing a closed area, daily bag limits, and eliminating commercial fishing. Common snook [Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch, 1792)] records did not increase significantly at CAN or ENP. Recreational fishery statistics corroborated IGFA record patterns. Total recreational catch and catch per trip (CPUE) increased significantly for spotted seatrout, red drum, and black drum in northeast and southwest Florida, the two regions with the most protective MPAs, and either declined or were unchanged in the northeast and southeast, which did not have MPAs with fishing restrictions. Both datasets supported predictions of marine reserve theory that MPAs can benefit fisheries by increasing the abundance and size of exploited species. Data did not support other alternative hypotheses proposed to explain record patterns. In conclusion, evidence indicates that Florida coastal estuarine MPAs with fishery restrictions allowed recreational anglers to increase their total catch and CPUE, and achieve more game fish world records than would have occurred if all coastal areas had been regulated by existing statewide fishing regulations.
- Hargreaves-Allen, V., Mourato, S., and Milner-Gulland, E.J. A global evaluation of coral reef management performance: Are MPAs producing conservation and socio-economic improvements? Environmental Management 47(4): 684-700, 2011.
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There is a consensus that Marine Protected Area (MPA) performance needs regular evaluation against clear criteria, incorporating counterfactual comparisons of ecological and socio-economic performance. However, these evaluations are scarce at the global level. We compiled self-reports from managers and researchers of 78 coral reef-based MPAs world-wide, on the conservation and welfare improvements that their MPAs provide. We developed a suite of performance measures including fulfilment of design and management criteria, achievement of aims, the cessation of banned or destructive activities, change in threats, and measurable ecological and socio-economic changes in outcomes, which we evaluated with respect to the MPA's age, geographical location and main aims. The sample was found to be broadly representative of MPAs generally, and suggests that many MPAs do not achieve certain fundamental aims including improvements in coral cover over time (in 25% of MPAs), and conflict reduction (in 25%). However, the large majority demonstrated improvements in terms of slowing coral loss, reducing destructive uses and increasing tourism and local employment, despite many being small, underfunded and facing multiple large scale threats beyond the control of managers. However spatial comparisons suggest that in some regions MPAs are simply mirroring outside changes, with demonstrates the importance of testing for additionality. MPA benefits do not appear to increase linearly over time. In combination with other management efforts and regulations, especially those relating to large scale threat reduction and targeted fisheries and conflict resolution instruments, MPAs are an important tool to achieve coral reef conservation globally. Given greater resources and changes which incorporate best available science, such as larger MPAs and no-take areas, networks and reduced user pressure, it is likely that performance could further be enhanced. Performance evaluation should test for the generation of additional ecological and socio-economic improvements over time and compared to unmanaged areas as part of an adaptive management regime.
- Guarderas, A.P., Hacker, S.D., and Lubchenco, J. Ecological effects of marine reserves in Latin America and the Caribbean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 429: 219-225, 2011.
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In this study we evaluated the performance of marine reserves in Latin America and the Caribbean by examining the results of previously published studies. On average, the total biomass, density and body size of species increased inside marine reserves but species richness did not. The magnitude and direction of the responses in particular reserves varied depending on the species and trophic group considered, suggesting that indirect effects and trophic cascades might be important processes in the community-wide response to protection. Our analysis at the species level showed that most species increased in density inside reserves and that the fish response was greater than that of the invertebrate response, which was more variable. We also found a positive relationship between recovery of particular species and their individual level of exploitation intensity outside the reserve but found no such relationship with species body size, mobility, trophic level or resilience (population doubling time). Moreover, our analysis revealed that the response to protection was unaffected by the size, years of protection or area surveyed of the reserve, but there was a negative relationship with the number of species sampled in the studies. Our results also showed that the number of publications on marine reserve performance in Latin America and the Caribbean is still limited and the distribution is geographically uneven. We suggest that a stronger focus on both target species and the suite of other interacting species will allow better estimates of the community-wide effects of protection.
- Díaz, D., Mallol, S., Parma, A.M., and Goñi, R. Decadal trend in lobster reproductive output from a temperate marine protected area. Marine Ecology Progress Series 433: 149-157, 2011.
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Increased recruitment from eggs and larvae exported from marine protected areas (MPAs) is anticipated to produce much greater benefits for exploited populations than spillover of adults. However, resolving the link between local egg production and regional recruitment is beyond current research capabilities, and quantifying the contribution of the MPA to regional reproductive output is the first step towards evaluating such potential. In this study, we assessed the egg production of spiny lobsters Palinurus elephas in the Columbretes MPA (western Mediterranean, Spain) and its contribution to regional reproductive output over the decade corresponding to years 10 to 19 of protection. We show that: (1) Mean female fecundity in the MPA increased by 41% over the 10 yr of study and in recent years was more than twice the fecundity in the nearby fished areas. (2) At the end of the study, mature females were on average 20 times more abundant, and egg production per unit area was 30 times greater in the MPA than in nearby fished areas. (3) At that time, the MPA, occupying 18% of the regional lobster habitats, was responsible for over 80% of the regional egg production. Overall, we estimate that after nearly 2 decades of protection, regional egg production was 6 times greater than would have been without the MPA. When compared to a net benefit through biomass spillover from the MPA to the regional lobster fishery of +11% of the annual catch, a 6-fold increase in egg production suggests that egg and larval export have far greater potential than spillover to benefit exploited populations.
- Samy, M., Sánchez Lizaso, J.L., and Forcada, A. Status of marine protected areas in Egypt. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 34(1): 165-177, 2011.
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Egypt has sought to protect its natural resources and marine biodiversity by establishing a network of six MPAs that are generally located in the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea; most of them include interconnected marine and terrestrial sectors based on conserving coral reefs and accompanying systems. We assessed the present status of MPA networks that showed a set of important results manifested in some strengths (i.e. proper selection according to specific criteria, management plans, etc.), and also some weaknesses (i.e. a relatively small protected proportion of the Egyptian marine territorial waters, significant pressures mainly by tourism activities, etc.). Finally, some recommendations are proposed from this work (i.e. incorporate more habitats that are not well represented in the network, especially on the Mediterranean Sea; establishing a touristic carrying capacity of each area; etc.) to improve the current situation.
- Goetze, J.S., Langlois, T.J., Egli, D.P., and Harvey, E.S. Evidence of artisanal fishing impacts and depth refuge in assemblages of Fijian reef fish. Coral Reefs 30(2): 507-517, 2011.
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Protection from fishing generally results in an increase in the abundance and biomass of species targeted by fisheries within marine reserve boundaries. Natural refuges such as depth may also protect such species, yet few studies in the Indo Pacific have investigated the effects of depth concomitant with marine reserves. We studied the effects of artisanal fishing and depth on reef fish assemblages in the Kubulau District of Vanua Levu Island, Fiji, using baited remote underwater stereo-video systems. Video samples were collected from shallow (5-8 m) and deep (25-30 m) sites inside and outside of a large old marine reserve (60.6 km2, 13 years old) and a small new marine reserve (4.25 km2, 4 years old). Species richness tended to be greater in the shallow waters of the large old reserve when compared to fished areas. In the deeper waters, species richness appeared to be comparable. The difference in shallow waters was driven by species targeted by fisheries, indicative of a depth refuge effect. In contrast, differences in the abundance composition of the fish assemblage existed between protected and fished areas for deep sites, but not shallow. Fish species targeted by local fisheries were 89% more abundant inside the large old reserve than surrounding fished areas, while non-targeted species were comparable. We observed no difference in the species richness or abundance of species targeted by fisheries inside and outside of the small new reserve. This study suggests that artisanal fishing impacts on the abundance and species richness of coral reef fish assemblages and effects of protection are more apparent with large reserves that have been established for a long period of time. Observed effects of protection also vary with depth, highlighting the importance of explicitly incorporating multiple depth strata in studies of marine reserves.
- Graziano, M., Guala, I., Higgins, R., Vandeperre, F., Le Direach, L., Martín-Sosa, P., and Vaselli, S. Review of the effects of protection in marine protected areas: current knowledge and gaps. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 34(1): 191-203, 2011.
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The effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) and the conservation of marine environments must be based on reliable information on the quality of the marine environment that can be obtained in a reasonable timeframe. We reviewed studies that evaluated all aspects related to the effectiveness of MPAs in order to describe how the studies were conducted and to detect fields in which research is lacking. Existing parameters used to evaluate the effectiveness of MPAs are summarised. Two-hundred and twenty-two publications were reviewed. We identified the most commonly used study subjects and methodological approaches. Most of the studies concentrated on biological parameters. Peer reviewed studies were based on control vs. impact design. BACI and mBACI designs were used in very few studies. Through this review, we have identified gaps in the objectives assigned to MPAs and the way in which they have been evaluated. We suggest some guidelines aimed at improving the assessment of the effects of protection in MPAs.
- Voyer, M., Gladstone, W., and Goodall, H. Methods of social assessment in Marine Protected Area planning: Is public participation enough? Marine Policy 36(2): 432-439, 2012.
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Addressing social and economic considerations is crucial to the success of Marine Protected Area (MPA) planning and management. Ineffective social assessment can alienate local communities and undermine the success of existing and future MPAs. It is rare to critique the success of methods used currently to incorporate social and economic considerations into MPA planning. Three Australian MPA planning processes covering three states and incorporating federal and state jurisdictions are reviewed in order to determine how potential social impacts were assessed and considered. These case studies indicate that Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is under-developed in Australian MPA planning. Assessments rely heavily on public participation and economic modelling as surrogates for dedicated SIA and are followed commonly by attitudinal surveys to gauge public opinion on the MPA after its establishment. The emergence of issues around public perception of the value of MPAs indicates the failure of some of these proposals to adequately consider social factors in planning and management. This perception may have potential implications for the long term success of individual MPAs. It may also compromise Australia's ability to meet international commitments for MPA targets to gazette at least 10% of all its marine habitats as MPAs. Indeed, this is demonstrated in two of the three case studies where social and economic arguments against MPAs have been used to delay or block the future expansion of the MPA network.
- Heck, N., Dearden, P., McDonald, A., and Carver, S. Stakeholder opinions on the assessment of MPA effectiveness and their interests to participate at Pacific Rim National Park Reserve, Canada. Environmental Management 47(4): 603-616, 2011.
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As the number of marine protected areas (MPAs) is globally increasing, information is needed on the effectiveness of existing sites. Many protected area agencies however have limited resources and are unable to evaluate MPA effectiveness. An evaluation conducted entirely by the managing agency may also lack credibility. Long-term monitoring and evaluation programs should ideally offer opportunities for participation of diverse groups in the selection of evaluation indicators and their assessment. A participatory approach has the potential to enhance evaluation capacity, to increase credibility and acceptance of results, to strengthen relationships between managers and local stakeholders, and to address more locally relevant information. Using a case study approach, this paper investigates diverse stakeholder groups' opinions on the design of an evaluation and their interest to participate in an assessment. Respondents were most interested in the assessment of MPA achievements and outcome indicators. Most groups identified a range of government agencies and stakeholders that should participate in an assessment but only half of all respondents were interested to participate in monitoring activities. Most frequently mentioned limitations for more participation were a lack of time and money, but also governance shortcomings such as limited participation possibilities and not paying enough credit to stakeholders' input. Participation interest was also influenced by occupation, place of residency, and familiarity with the marine environment. Differences exist among stakeholders about suitable evaluators and preferred monitoring partners, which could affect the credibility of evaluation results and affect monitoring activities.
- Taylor, R.B., Morrison, M.A., and Shears, N.T. Establishing baselines for recovery in a marine reserve (Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand) using local ecological knowledge. Biological Conservation 144(12): 3038-3046, 2011.
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Local ecological knowledge is a potentially valuable, but mostly untapped, resource for evaluating decadal-scale shifts in abundances of organisms. In this study, recollections of long-term divers were quantified to assess changes in underwater life at the Poor Knights Islands in temperate northeastern New Zealand from the 1960s to 2000s, in order to establish baselines for recovery since the islands were protected within a no-take marine reserve in late 1998. Data were validated against quantitative data from contemporary monitoring programmes (established in the late 1990s), with the divers conservative in that their reported changes were smaller than those from the scientific monitoring. The divers reported large (60-88%) and steady long-term declines in abundances of black corals (Lillipathes lilliei), tube sponges (Calyx imperialis), packhorse lobster (Sagmariasus verreauxi), and several large predatory fishes. There was little or no suggestion of recent recovery in these species following no-take protection. Only the sparid fish Pagrus auratus and sharks were considered to have substantially increased in numbers following no-take protection. Multivariate analysis of data derived from the divers' recollections detected no signs of recovery at the community-level, although full no-take protection appeared to have stopped further change along the major axis of variation. Our results highlight the value of local ecological knowledge for investigating decadal-scale changes in reef biota and for providing a longer-term context for evaluating the efficacy of marine reserves.
- Grilo, C. Institutional interplay in networks of marine protected areas with community-based management. Coastal Management 39(4): 440-458, 2011.
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Institutional interplay, or the ability of one institution to affect another, is a key feature of multi-level environmental governance that can influence the performance of institutions, such as marine protected areas (MPAs). In the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), MPA networks are being created to meet top-down, internationally defined MPA targets, while simultaneously there is a strong regional focus on bottom-up, community-based marine management. These apparently contradictory trends can be bridged through networks of community-based MPAs. To explore whether institutional interplay affects the success of such MPA networks, and to provide guidance for MPA-making in the WIO, the literature on ten geographically diverse MPA networks with community-based MPAs was reviewed. Because this is a first exploration into the topic, not all causal links between institutional interplay and MPA effectiveness could be confirmed, neither was any indication of interplay-related costs found. However, the analysis suggests that institutional interplay is generally concerned with information exchanges and issues of control and authority and seemed to have positive effects on MPA success. As MPA networks expand in the WIO, MPA practitioners and managers in the region may consider different forms of institutional interplay to be tailored to their specific management and financial contexts.
- Read, A.D., West, R.J., Haste, M., and Jordan, A. Optimizing voluntary compliance in marine protected areas: A comparison of recreational fisher and enforcement officer perspectives using multi-criteria analysis. Journal of Environmental Management 92(10): 2558-2567, 2011.
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A comprehensive list of planning criteria for optimizing compliance in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) was compiled and used to compare the views of recreational fishers and compliance officers for facilitating voluntary compliance in the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP). Expert working groups were tasked separately with: 1) criteria identification and weighting; 2) scoring of no-take zones; 3) prioritizing and determining uncertainty; and 4) analysis of results and sensitivity testing. Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) revealed that both groups had similar perspectives and recommendations, despite weighting the individual planning criteria differently. Significantly, "manageability" scores for no-take zones from MCA appeared to correlate well with past numbers of enforcement actions recorded for each zone. This provides empirical evidence that adopting manageability criteria during the planning of MPAs could lead to a marked increase in voluntary compliance. As a result, greater consideration to compliance planning during MPA design and zoning is recommended in order to optimize voluntary compliance. Whilst the majority of no-take zones in the PSGLMP case study were evaluated as being relatively effective in terms of optimizing voluntary compliance, there remains considerable potential to improve design, management and use of the poorer performing zones. Finally, the study highlighted the value of recreational fisher engagement in MPA planning processes to maximize voluntary compliance and manageability.
- Kittinger, J.N., Dowling, A., Purves, A.R., Milne, N.A., and Olsson, P. Marine protected areas, multiple-agency management, and monumental surprise in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Journal of Marine Biology 2011: art. 241374, 2011.
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Large, regional-scale marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA networks face different challenges in governance systems than locally managed or community-based MPAs. An emerging theme in large-scale MPA management is the prevalence of governance structures that rely on institutional collaboration, presenting new challenges as agencies with differing mandates and cultures work together to implement ecosystem-based management. We analyzed qualitative interview data to investigate multi-level social interactions and institutional responses to the surprise establishment of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (monument) in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). The governance arrangement for the monument represents a new model in US MPA management, requiring two federal agencies and the State of Hawai'i to collaboratively manage the NWHI. We elucidate the principal barriers to institutional cotrusteeship, characterize institutional transformations that have occurred among the partner agencies in the transition to collaborative management, and evaluate the governance arrangement for the monument as a model for MPAs. The lessons learned from the NWHI governance arrangement are critical as large-scale MPAs requiring multiple-agency management become a prevalent feature on the global seascape.
- Nursey-Bray, M. Social contexts and customary fisheries: Marine Protected Areas and indigenous use, Australia. Environmental Management 47(4): 671-683, 2011.
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Worldwide, the implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) offers opportunities for delivering fisheries and biodiversity management objectives. In Australia however, the primary function of an MPA is that of biodiversity conservation. Nonetheless, the management of Indigenous customary fisheries is one area where fisheries and biodiversity issues converge. This article examines the relationship between biodiversity and customary fisheries in an MPA context by investigation of the role and importance of Indigenous social contexts. Using case study examples from Australia, I explore the role of Indigenous social contexts in two dimensions: (i) management of traditional fisheries and (ii) Indigenous contribution to fisheries within an MPA. Findings demonstrate two narratives concerning social contexts, one of recognition and the other concerning Indigenous involvement in management. I conclude with a survey of Indigenous management initiatives within MPAs. The article ends with a discussion of the utility of understanding social contexts in any marine management endeavour, specifically other social contexts within an MPA.
- Agardy, T., di Sciara, G. N., and Christie, P. Mind the gap: Addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning. Marine Policy 35(2): 226-232, 2011.
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A blind faith in the ability of MPAs to counteract loss of biodiversity is fraught with risk, especially when MPAs are poorly planned and when the consequences of establishing MPAs are not adequately thought out. MPA shortcomings are categorized as one of five main types: (1) MPAs that by virtue of their small size or poor design are ecologically insufficient; (2) inappropriately planned or managed MPAs; (3) MPAs that fail due to the degradation of the unprotected surrounding ecosystems; (4) MPAs that do more harm than good due to displacement and unintended consequences of management; and (5) MPAs that create a dangerous illusion of protection when in fact no protection is occurring. A strategic alternative, which fully utilizes the strengths of the MPA tool while avoiding the pitfalls, can overcome these shortcomings: integrating marine protected area planning in broader marine spatial planning and ocean zoning efforts.
- Little, L.R., Grafton, R.Q., Kompas, T., Smith, A.D.M., Punt, A.E., and Mapstone, B.D. Complementarity of no-take marine reserves and individual transferable catch quotas for managing the line fishery of the Great Barrier Reef. Conservation Biology 25(2): 333-340, 2011.
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Changes in the management of the fin fish fishery of the Great Barrier Reef motivated us to investigate the combined effects on economic returns and fish biomass of no-take areas and regulated total allowable catch allocated in the form of individual transferable quotas (such quotas apportion the total allowable catch as fishing rights and permits the buying and selling of these rights among fishers). We built a spatially explicit biological and economic model of the fishery to analyze the trade-offs between maintaining given levels of fish biomass and the net financial returns from fishing under different management regimes. Results of the scenarios we modeled suggested that a decrease in total allowable catch at high levels of harvest either increased net returns or lowered them only slightly, but increased biomass by up to 10% for a wide range of reserve sizes and an increase in the reserve area from none to 16% did not greatly change net returns at any catch level. Thus, catch shares and no-take reserves can be complementary and when these methods are used jointly they promote lower total allowable catches when harvest is relatively high and encourage larger no-take areas when they are small.
- Rocklin, D., Tomasini, J.-A., Culioli, J-M., Pelletier, D., and Mouillot, D. Spearfishing regulation benefits artisanal fisheries: The ReGS indicator and its application to a multiple-use Mediterranean marine protected area. PLoS ONE 6(9): art. e23820, 2011.
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The development of fishing efficiency coupled with an increase of fishing effort led to the overexploitation of numerous natural marine resources. In addition to this commercial pressure, the impact of recreational activities on fish assemblages remains barely known. Here we examined the impact of spearfishing limitation on resources in a marine protected area (MPA) and the benefit it provides for the local artisanal fishery through the use of a novel indicator. We analysed trends in the fish assemblage composition using artisanal fisheries data collected in the Bonifacio Strait Natural Reserve (BSNR), a Mediterranean MPA where the spearfishing activity has been forbidden over 15% of its area. Fish species were pooled into three response groups according to their target level by spearfishing. We developed the new flexible ReGS indicator reflecting shifts in species assemblages according to the relative abundance of each response group facing external pressure. The catch per unit effort (CPUE) increased by ca. 60% in the BSNR between 2000 and 2007, while the MPA was established in 1999. The gain of CPUE strongly depended on the considered response group: for the highly targeted group, the CPUE doubled while the CPUE of the untargeted group increased by only 15.5%. The ReGS value significantly increased from 0.31 to 0.45 (on a scale between 0 and 1) in the general perimeter of this MPA while it has reached a threshold of 0.43, considered as a reference point, in the area protected from spearfishing since 1982. Our results demonstrated that limiting recreational fishing by appropriate zoning in multiple-use MPAs represents a real benefit for artisanal fisheries. More generally we showed how our new indicator may reveal a wide range of impacts on coastal ecosystems such as global change or habitat degradation.
- Gerber, L.R., Estes, J., Crawford, T.G., Peavey, L.E., and Read, A.J. Managing for extinction? Conflicting conservation objectives in a large marine reserve. Conservation Letters 4(6): 417-422, 2011.
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Establishment of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (PMNM) in 2006 was heralded as a major advance for marine conservation. The PMNM is one of the largest no-take marine reserves in the world (36,207,439 hectares) and includes all of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). Despite the protection, within its boundaries one of Hawaii's most charismatic marine species, the endemic Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi), is declining towards extinction. In contrast, monk seal abundance is increasing in the largely unprotected Main Hawaiian Islands. High juvenile mortality in the NWHI has been identified as the demographic factor responsible for the population decline. The ecological drivers of the dynamic are unknown. We evaluate an intervention proposed by the Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center within the PMNM in a situation in which there is little or no precedent of theory to support management decisions, and then examine the conflicting conservation mandates that pose challenges for monk seal conservation. Benefits of intervention include the potential to maintain subpopulations in the NWHI, and therefore preserve the metapopulation structure, and it will provide additional time for management agencies to continue studies to understand factors limiting population growth. If conditions inside the PMNM do not improve, however, juvenile seals will continue to experience poor survival and subpopulations in the NWHI will continue to decline in spite of intervention. The long-term success of any intervention requires the underlying ecological reason for the NWHI population decline, which is currently unclear. The failure of the PMNM to conserve endangered Hawaiian monk seals highlights conflicting goals of different conservation agendas, the need to understand ecosystem function and large-scale ecosystem interactions, and the necessity of adaptive management.
- Al Abdulrazzak, D. and Trombulak, S.C. Classifying levels of protection in Marine Protected Areas. Marine Policy 36(3): 576-582, 2012.
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are an important tool for the conservation of marine species and ecosystems. Yet despite the significant differences between marine and terrestrial systems in terms of their critical ecological processes, stresses, and relationships with cultural systems, methods used to characterize levels of protection for biological diversity in MPAs are all derived from schemes developed for terrestrial systems. A new system designed to classify levels of protection in MPAs is proposed, based on criteria specifically relevant to marine systems. MPAs are characterized by each of the seven criteria: designated use, quality of natural character, extent of protection throughout the year, extent of zoning into sub-areas for multiple uses, public access, extraction of resources, and size with respect to supporting critical ecological processes. Five levels of protection are defined, labeled I-V: Wilderness Management Area (Level I), Research Management Area, Ecological Management Area, Human Recreation Management Area, and Sustainable Resource Management Area (V). A level is assigned to an MPA based on the level that matches the largest number of categories across all seven criteria. The uses and benefits of this system of classification relative to existing systems are discussed and examples of its application are illustrated using data on 83 MPAs in California (USA) and 10 globally.
- Muñoz, P. D. and Sayago-Gil, M. An overview of cold-water coral protection on the high seas: The Hatton Bank (NE Atlantic) – A case study. Marine Policy 35(5): 615-622, 2011.
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The present paper provides an overview of cold-water corals protection in the Hatton Bank deep-water fisheries through the implementation of the United Nations General Assembly resolution 61/105. The methodology and scientific evidence used to propose protection of cold-water coral ecosystems in the high seas (~16,000 km²) are briefly summarised. The role of international agents and importance of interdisciplinary research for making management decisions are furthermore described. Implementation was slow because (i) of scarce initial scientific knowledge, (ii) research on the high seas was difficult and expensive, (iii) there were several international interests at stake, (iv) agreement from a number of agents was needed, and (v) international advisory and decision making processes were quite slow. Some lessons learned are also discussed since these may help to increase protection efficiency of deep-sea vulnerable marine ecosystems in the high seas.
- Van Dover, C.L., Smith, C.R., Ardron, J., Dunn, D., Gjerde, K., Levin, L., and Smith, S. Designating networks of chemosynthetic ecosystem reserves in the deep sea. Marine Policy 36(2): 378-381, 2012.
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From the moment of their discovery, chemosynthetic ecosystems in the deep sea have held intrinsic scientific value. At the same time that the scientific community is studying chemosynthetic ecosystems other sectors are either engaged in, or planning for, activities that may adversely impact these ecosystems. There is a need and opportunity now to develop conservation strategies for networks of chemosynthetic ecosystem reserves in national and international waters through collaboration among concerned stakeholders.
- O'Leary, B.C., Brown, R.L., Johnson, D.E., von Nordheim, H., Ardron, J., Packeiser, T., and Roberts, C.M. The first network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the high seas: The process, the challenges and where next. Marine Policy 36(3): 598-605, 2012.
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Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly being established to protect and rebuild coastal and marine ecosystems. However, while the high seas are increasingly subject to exploitation, globally few MPAs exist in areas beyond national jurisdiction. In 2010 a substantial step forward was made in the protection of high seas ecosystems with 286,200 km² of the North-East Atlantic established as six MPAs. Here a summary is presented of how the world's first network of high seas marine protected areas was created under the OSPAR Convention, the main challenges and a series of key lessons learned, aiming to highlight approaches that also may be effective for similar efforts in the future. It is concluded that the designation of these six MPAs is just the start of the process and to achieve ecological coherence and representativity in the North-East Atlantic, the network will have to be complemented over time by additional MPA sites.
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