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- Pontecorvo, G. and Schrank, W.E. The expansion, limit and decline of the global marine fish catch. Marine Policy 36(5): 1178-1181, 2012.
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Catch of marine fish grew from after WW II–1989, at which point it stabilized. In 1996 it began to decline. It continues to decline now, at a time when earth's population is expected to reach 10 billion by 2050. Since the factors driving the increase are primarily the growth in income, population, technology of catching fish and ever increasing fishing effort, it is to be expected that the aggregate marine catch will continue to decline. This decline has important implications for marine ecosystems but primarily its importance relates to the human use of other global resources such as food, water and world's climate.
- Anticamara, J.A., Watson, R., Gelchu, A., and Pauly, D. Global fishing effort (1950–2010): Trends, gaps, and implications. Fisheries Research 107(1-3): 131-136, 2011.
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According to a recent World Bank report, the intensification of global fishing effort and the ensuing depletion of marine fish stocks causes economic losses of 50 billion US dollars annually. Data deficiencies, however, currently hamper analysis of global fishing effort. We analyzed data from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the EUROPA fishing fleet registry, and peer-reviewed and other publications, to determine the global trends in fishing effort from 1950 to 2006. Our results show that global fishing effort, expressed as total engine power and the number of fishing days in a year (kilowatt days), was roughly constant from 1950 to 1970, and then steadily increased up to the present. Europe dominated global fishing effort, followed by Asia. Projecting current trends suggests that Asia will soon surpass Europe. Trawlers contribute a major fraction of global fishing effort, as do vessels greater than 100 gross registered tons. Current estimates of global fishing effort, the number of vessels, and total vessel tonnage are, however, underestimates given the data gaps that we have identified. Our results are useful in the following ways: (1) they may encourage researchers in academia and government to improve global fishing effort databases; (2) they allow deeper global analyses of the impact of fishing on marine ecosystems; (3) they induce caution in accepting current underestimates of economic losses of global fisheries; and (4) they reinforce calls for a reduction in global fishing effort.
- Srinivasan, U.T., Watson, R., and Sumaila, U.R. Global fisheries losses at the exclusive economic zone level, 1950 to present. Marine Policy 36(2): 544-549, 2012.
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Up to one-third of commercial fishery stocks may be overfished at present. By analyzing catch trends and applying an empirical relationship derived from stock assessments, this article tracks the geographic spread of overfishing at the country level in terms of lost catch and lost revenue, from the start of industrialized fishing in 1950–2004. The results tell a cautionary tale of serial depletion to meet the ever-rising demand for fish. Examining country losses with respect to fishery management reveals that overcapacity and excess fishing effort are widespread, but also that recent trends towards sustainability can stabilize or reverse losses (e.g. for Norway, Iceland, the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand). Global trade effectively masks the successive depletion of stocks, so that without decisive action to reduce fishing effort, many more stocks will suffer and undernourishment impacts for the major exporting, food-deficit nations will only magnify.
- Watson, R.A., Cheung, W.W.L., Anticamara, J.A., Sumaila, R.U., Zeller, D., and Pauly, D. Global marine yield halved as fishing intensity redoubles. Fish and Fisheries DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2979.2012.00483.x, 2012.
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There is widespread concern and debate about the state of global marine resources and the ecosystems supporting them, notably global fisheries, as catches now generally stagnate or decline. Many fisheries are not assessed by standard stock assessment methods including many in the world's most biodiverse areas. Though simpler methods using widely available catch data are available, these are often discounted largely because data on fishing effort that contributed to the changes in catches are mostly not considered. We analyse spatial and temporal patterns of global fishing effort and its relationship with catch to assess the status of the world's fisheries. The study reveals that fleets now fish all of the world's oceans and have increased in power by an average of 10-fold (25-fold for Asia) since the 1950s. Significantly, for the equivalent fishing power expended, landings from global fisheries are now half what they were a half-century ago, indicating profound changes to supporting marine environments. This study provides another dimension to understand the global status of fisheries.
- Pinsky, M.L., Jensen, O.P., Ricard, D., and Palumbi, S.R. Unexpected patterns of fisheries collapse in the world's oceans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [USA] 108(20): 8317-8322, 2011.
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Understanding which species are most vulnerable to human impacts is a prerequisite for designing effective conservation strategies. Surveys of terrestrial species have suggested that large-bodied species and top predators are the most at risk, and it is commonly assumed that such patterns also apply in the ocean. However, there has been no global test of this hypothesis in the sea. We analyzed two fisheries datasets (stock assessments and landings) to determine the life-history traits of species that have suffered dramatic population collapses. Contrary to expectations, our data suggest that up to twice as many fisheries for small, low trophic-level species have collapsed compared with those for large predators. These patterns contrast with those on land, suggesting fundamental differences in the ways that industrial fisheries and land conversion affect natural communities. Even temporary collapses of small, low trophic-level fishes can have ecosystem-wide impacts by reducing food supply to larger fish, seabirds, and marine mammals.
- Worm, B. and Tittensor, D.P. Range contraction in large pelagic predators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [USA] 108(29): 11942-11947, 2011.
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Large reductions in the abundance of exploited land predators have led to significant range contractions for those species. This pattern can be formalized as the range-abundance relationship, a general macroecological pattern that has important implications for the conservation of threatened species. Here we ask whether similar responses may have occurred in highly mobile pelagic predators, specifically 13 species of tuna and billfish. We analyzed two multidecadal global data sets on the spatial distribution of catches and fishing effort targeting these species and compared these with available abundance time series from stock assessments. We calculated the effort needed to reliably detect the presence of a species and then computed observed range sizes in each decade from 1960 to 2000. Results suggest significant range contractions in 9 of the 13 species considered here (between 2% and 46% loss of observed range) and significant range expansions in two species (11–29% increase). Species that have undergone the largest declines in abundance and are of particular conservation concern tended to show the largest range contractions. These include all three species of bluefin tuna and several marlin species. In contrast, skipjack tuna, which may have increased its abundance in the Pacific, has also expanded its range size. These results mirror patterns described for many land predators, despite considerable differences in habitat, mobility, and dispersal, and imply ecological extirpation of heavily exploited species across parts of their range.
- Anderson, S.C., Mills Flemming, J., Watson, R., and Lotze, H.K. Rapid global expansion of invertebrate fisheries: Trends, drivers, and ecosystem effects. PLoS ONE 6(3): art. e14735, 2011.
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Background Worldwide, finfish fisheries are receiving increasing assessment and regulation, slowly leading to more sustainable exploitation and rebuilding. In their wake, invertebrate fisheries are rapidly expanding with little scientific scrutiny despite increasing socio-economic importance. Methods and Findings We provide the first global evaluation of the trends, drivers, and population and ecosystem consequences of invertebrate fisheries based on a global catch database in combination with taxa-specific reviews. We also develop new methodologies to quantify temporal and spatial trends in resource status and fishery development. Since 1950, global invertebrate catches have increased 6-fold with 1.5 times more countries fishing and double the taxa reported. By 2004, 34% of invertebrate fisheries were over-exploited, collapsed, or closed. New fisheries have developed increasingly rapidly, with a decrease of 6 years (3 years) in time to peak from the 1950s to 1990s. Moreover, some fisheries have expanded further and further away from their driving market, encompassing a global fishery by the 1990s. 71% of taxa (53% of catches) are harvested with habitat-destructive gear, and many provide important ecosystem functions including habitat, filtration, and grazing. Conclusions Our findings suggest that invertebrate species, which form an important component of the basis of marine food webs, are increasingly exploited with limited stock and ecosystem-impact assessments, and enhanced management attention is needed to avoid negative consequences for ocean ecosystems and human well-being.
- Norse, E.A. et al. Sustainability of deep-sea fisheries. Marine Policy 36(2): 307-320, 2012.
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As coastal fisheries around the world have collapsed, industrial fishing has spread seaward and deeper in pursuit of the last economically attractive concentrations of fishable biomass. For a seafood-hungry world depending on the oceans' ecosystem services, it is crucial to know whether deep-sea fisheries can be sustainable. The deep sea is by far the largest but least productive part of the oceans, although in very limited places fish biomass can be very high. Most deep-sea fishes have life histories giving them far less population resilience/productivity than shallow-water fishes, and could be fished sustainably only at very low catch rates if population resilience were the sole consideration. But like old-growth trees and great whales, their biomass makes them tempting targets while their low productivity creates strong economic incentive to liquidate their populations rather than exploiting them sustainably (Clark's Law). Many deep-sea fisheries use bottom trawls, which often have high impacts on nontarget fishes (e.g., sharks) and invertebrates (e.g., corals), and can often proceed only because they receive massive government subsidies. The combination of very low target population productivity, nonselective fishing gear, economics that favor population liquidation and a very weak regulatory regime makes deep-sea fisheries unsustainable with very few exceptions. Rather, deep-sea fisheries more closely resemble mining operations that serially eliminate fishable populations and move on. Instead of mining fish from the least-suitable places on Earth, an ecologically and economically preferable strategy would be rebuilding and sustainably fishing resilient populations in the most suitable places, namely shallower and more productive marine ecosystems that are closer to markets.
- Pikitch, E.K. et al. The global contribution of forage fish to marine fisheries and ecosystems. Fish and Fisheries DOI: 10.1111/faf.12004, 2012.
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Forage fish play a pivotal role in marine ecosystems and economies worldwide by sustaining many predators and fisheries directly and indirectly. We estimate global forage fish contributions to marine ecosystems through a synthesis of 72 published Ecopath models from around the world. Three distinct contributions of forage fish were examined: (i) the ecological support service of forage fish to predators in marine ecosystems, (ii) the total catch and value of forage fisheries and (iii) the support service of forage fish to the catch and value of other commercially targeted predators. Forage fish use and value varied and exhibited patterns across latitudes and ecosystem types. Forage fish supported many kinds of predators, including fish, seabirds, marine mammals and squid. Overall, forage fish contribute a total of about $16.9 billion USD to global fisheries values annually, i.e. 20% of the global ex-vessel catch values of all marine fisheries combined. While the global catch value of forage fisheries was $5.6 billion, fisheries supported by forage fish were more than twice as valuable ($11.3 billion). These estimates provide important information for evaluating the trade-offs of various uses of forage fish across ecosystem types, latitudes and globally. We did not estimate a monetary value for supportive contributions of forage fish to recreational fisheries or to uses unrelated to fisheries, and thus the estimates of economic value reported herein understate the global value of forage fishes.
- Branch, T.A., Jensen, O.P., Ricard, D., Ye, Y., and Hilborn, R. Contrasting global trends in marine fishery status obtained from catches and from stock assessments. Conservation Biology 25(4): 777-786, 2011.
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There are differences in perception of the status of fisheries around the world that may partly stem from how data on trends in catches over time have been used. On the basis of catch trends, it has been suggested that about 70% of all stocks are overexploited due to unsustainable harvesting and 30% of all stocks have collapsed to <10% of unfished levels. Catch trends also suggest that over time an increasing number of stocks will be overexploited and collapsed. We evaluated how use of catch data affects assessment of fisheries stock status. We analyzed simulated random catch data with no trend. We examined well-studied stocks classified as collapsed on the basis of catch data to determine whether these stocks actually were collapsed. We also used stock assessments to compare stock status derived from catch data with status derived from biomass data. Status of stocks derived from catch trends was almost identical to what one would expect if catches were randomly generated with no trend. Most classifications of collapse assigned on the basis of catch data were due to taxonomic reclassification, regulatory changes in fisheries, and market changes. In our comparison of biomass data with catch trends, catch trends overestimated the percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks. Although our biomass data were primarily from industrial fisheries in developed countries, the status of these stocks estimated from catch data was similar to the status of stocks in the rest of the world estimated from catch data. We conclude that at present 28–33% of all stocks are overexploited and 7 - 13% of all stocks are collapsed. Additionally, the proportion of fished stocks that are overexploited or collapsed has been fairly stable in recent years.
- Simpson, S. The blue food revolution. Scientific American 304(2): 54-61, 2011.
- Duarte, C.M., Holmer, M., Olsen, Y., Soto, D., Marba, N., Guiu, J., Black, K., and Karakassis, I. Will the oceans help feed humanity? BioScience 59(11): 967-976, 2009.
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Constraints on the availability of freshwater and land plants and animals to feed tire 9.2 billion humans projected to inhabit Earth by 2050 can be overcome by enhancing the contribution the ocean makes to food production. Catches from ocean fisheries are unlikely to recover without adequate conservation measures, so the greater contribution of the oceans to feeding humanity must be derived largely from mariculture. For the effort to be successful, mariculture must close the production cycle to abandon its current dependence on fisheries catches; enhance the production of edible macroalgae and filter feeder organisms; minimize environmental impacts; and increase integration with food production on land, transferring water-intensive components of the human diet (i.e., production of animal protein) to the ocean. Accommodating these changes will enable the oceans to become a major source of food, which we believe will constitute the next food revolution in human history.
- Costa-Pierce, B.A. Sustainable ecological aquaculture systems: the need for a new social contract for aquaculture development. Marine Technology Society Journal 44(3): 88-112, 2010.
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Ecohistories of aquaculture suggest that aquaculture is a natural part of human development throughout history and that modern, industrial aquaculture could strengthen its social and ecological roots by articulating its evolution along a sustainability trajectory and by adopting fully the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) ecosystems approach to aquaculture (EAA; Soto et al., 2008). The EAA creates a new code for global aquaculture development, combining into one common framework the two most important social-ecological trajectories for global aquaculture – aquaculture for the world's rich and aquaculture for the world's poor. Knowledge of the rich archeology and anthropology of aquaculture connects this FAO code to antiquity, creating a single development pathway for aquaculture throughout human history. Without widespread adoption of an EAA, FAO (2009) projections of aquaculture development over the next 30 years may provide a far too optimistic scenario for its global growth. In this regard, aquaculture over the last 20 years has been criticized as lacking adequate attention and investment in developing grassroots, democratic, extension processes to engage a broader group of stakeholders to evolve the "blue revolution." As an example, there has been a failure of fisheries and aquaculture to plan together to ensure sustainable supplies of seafood – the world's most valuable proteins for human health – for seafood-eating peoples. Nonfed aquaculture (seaweeds, shellfish) has received worldwide attention for its rapid movement toward greater sustainability, which has led to more widespread social acceptance. For fed aquaculture, recent trends analyses have suggested that aquaculture is turning from the ocean to land-based agriculture to provide its protein feeds and oils. As such, more sophisticated, ecologically planned and designed "aquaculture ecosystems" will become more widespread because they better fit the social-ecological context of both rich and poor countries. Ecological aquaculture provides the basis for developing a new social contract for aquaculture that is inclusive of all stakeholders and decision makers in fisheries, agriculture, and ecosystems conservation and restoration.
- Samuel-Fitwi, B., Wuertz, S., Schroeder, J.P., and Schulz, C. Sustainability assessment tools to support aquaculture development. Journal of Cleaner Production 32: 183-192, 2012.
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Aquaculture production has doubled every decade for the past fifty years, representing the fastest growing food sector. This increase reflects the expansion of production areas, increased know-how in husbandry and advances in production technologies, but most importantly it entails increased use of production-inputs that lead to exploitation of natural resources and hence raising concern on environmental distress. In addition, it suggests a similar range of production-outputs apart from the actual target products that are hardly quantified but often are recognized for causing impacts on the environment as well as potential risks for human health. Although several quantitative multi-impact assessment tools have been explored to evaluate environmental impacts of industrial activities, applications in aquaculture have only recently been carried out. However, impact assessment tools applied so far do not reflect the full range of aquaculture activities, and hence incorporate limitations that impair their use in aquaculture environmental assessment. Therefore, the development of tailored environmental assessment tool incorporating impacts distinctive to aquaculture is necessary. By reviewing recent methodologies used in aquaculture, their limitations are identified and future research needs are highlighted. Although large strides have been made in reaching standardized methods for environmental assessment tools such as life cycle assessment (LCA), their use in policy formulation and decision making requires relentless effort to develop the tools using fundamental problems known to aquaculture. As a prerequisite, the most significant impacts of aquaculture are identified but need to be characterized and integrated in aquacultural assessment tool. Furthermore, social aspects of sustainability should be considered; and linkage of operational efficiency with environmental performance can support in optimizing the allocation of resources while minimizing impacts.
- Bostock, J. The application of science and technology development in shaping current and future aquaculture production systems. Journal of Agricultural Science 149(S1): 133-141, 2011.
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Aquaculture development over the past 50 years has been facilitated largely by the application of science and the introduction of new technologies. Although aquaculture is a very diverse sector in products, production systems and business structures, almost every activity has benefited from scientific advances. However, the impact of technological progress is most clearly seen where there has also been substantial industrial consolidation. This has provided greater capital resources for investment and a more attractive market for suppliers of innovations to target. It has also encouraged consolidation of research capacity and stronger articulation between private and publicly funded research efforts. Further development along current trajectories is possible through advances in genomics, information technology, materials science and other areas. However, there may also be substantial disruptions if, for instance, energy becomes much more expensive, or large mono-cultures are impacted by climate change. Substantial change could also be driven by policies that aim at bringing realistic external costs of environmental services into company accounts. Research into more resilient aquaculture systems that comply more with ecological than financial accounting principles is under way, but will require substantial development to meet the challenges of rising food needs and social aspirations.
- Lorenzen, K., Beveridge, M.C.M., and Mangel, M. Cultured fish: integrative biology and management of domestication and interactions with wild fish. Biological Reviews 87(3): 639-660, 2012.
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Fish aquaculture for commodity production, fisheries enhancement and conservation is expanding rapidly, with many cultured species undergoing inadvertent or controlled domestication. Cultured fish are frequently released, accidentally and deliberately, into natural environments where they may survive well and impact on wild fish populations through ecological, genetic, and technical interactions. Impacts of fish released accidentally or for fisheries enhancement tend to be negative for the wild populations involved, particularly where wild populations are small, and/or highly adapted to local conditions, and/or declining. Captive breeding and supplementation can play a positive role in restoring threatened populations, but the biology of threatened populations and the potential of culture approaches for conserving them remain poorly understood. Approaches to the management of domestication and cultured-wild fish interactions are often ad hoc, fragmented and poorly informed by current science. We develop an integrative biological framework for understanding and managing domestication and cultured-wild fish interactions. The framework sets out how management practices in culture and for cultured fish in natural environments affect domestication processes, interactions between cultured and wild fish, and outcomes in terms of commodity production, fisheries yield, and conservation. We also develop a typology of management systems (specific combinations of management practices in culture and in natural environments) that are likely to provide positive outcomes for particular management objectives and situations. We close by setting out avenues for further research that will simultaneously improve fish domestication and management of cultured-wild fish interactions and provide key insights into fundamental biology.
- Tacon, A.G.J., Metian, M., Turchini, G.M., and DeSilva, S.S. Responsible aquaculture and trophic level implications to global fish supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18(1): 94-105, 2010.
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Hunger and malnutrition remain among the most devastating problems facing the world's poor and needy, and continue to dominate the health and well-being of the world's poorest nations. Moreover, there are growing doubts as to the long-term sustainability of many existing food production systems, including capture fisheries and aquaculture, to meet the future increasing global demands. Of the different agricultural food production systems, aquaculture (the farming of aquatic animals and plants) is widely viewed as an important weapon in the global fight against malnutrition and poverty, particularly within developing countries where over 93% of global production is currently produced, providing in most instances an affordable and a much needed source of high quality animal protein, lipids, and other essential nutrients. The current article compares for the first time the development and growth of the aquaculture sector and capture fisheries by analyzing production by mean trophic level. Whereas marine capture fisheries have been feeding the world on high trophic level carnivorous fish species since mankind has been fishing the oceans, aquaculture production within developing countries has focused, by and large, on the production of lower trophic level species. However, like capture fisheries, aquaculture focus within economically developed countries has been essentially on the culture of high value-, high trophic level-carnivorous species. The long term sustainability of these production systems is questionable unless the industry can reduce its dependence upon capture fisheries for sourcing raw materials for feed formulation and seed inputs. In line with above, the article calls for the urgent need for all countries to adopt and adhere to the principles and guidelines for responsible aquaculture of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.
- Godfray, H.C.J., Beddington, J.R., Crute, I.R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J.F., Pretty, J., Robinson, S., Thomas, S.M., and Toulmin, C. Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327(5967): 812-818, 2010.
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Continuing population and consumption growth will mean that the global demand for food will increase for at least another 40 years. Growing competition for land, water, and energy, in addition to the overexploitation of fisheries, will affect our ability to produce food, as will the urgent requirement to reduce the impact of the food system on the environment. The effects of climate change are a further threat. But the world can produce more food and can ensure that it is used more efficiently and equitably. A multifaceted and linked global strategy is needed to ensure sustainable and equitable food security, different components of which are explored here.
- Frid, C.L.J. and Paramor, O.A.L. Feeding the world: what role for fisheries? ICES Journal of Marine Science 69(2): 145-150, 2012.
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Fisheries (wild capture and aquaculture) deliver more than 110 million tonnes of food and around 15% of the dietary protein to the 7 billion people currently living on the planet. With the global population expected to peak at 9 billion by 2050, and >80% of global fish stocks currently fully or overexploited (and aquaculture is at least in part dependent on capture fisheries), the contribution of fisheries looks set to decline. The challenge is therefore determining how better management, an ecosystem perspective, and more efficient utilization of fisheries waste can support fisheries products continuing to contribute significantly to "feeding the world" up to and beyond the population peak.
- Dulvy, N.K. and Allison, E.H. A place at the table. Nature Reports | Climate Change 3(6): 68-70, 2009.
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An oft-forgotten source of food security and livelihoods, fisheries must be included in ongoing discussions of how the world's most vulnerable can adapt to climate change.
- Bell, J.D., Kronen, M., Vunisea, A., Nash, W.J., Keeble, G., Demmke, A., Pontifex, S., and Andréfouët, S. Planning the use of fish for food security in the Pacific. Marine Policy 33(1): 64-76, 2009.
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Fish is a mainstay of food security for Pacific island countries and territories (PICTs). Recent household income and expenditure surveys, and socio-economic surveys, demonstrate that subsistence fishing still provides the great majority of dietary animal protein in the region. Forecasts of the fish required in 2030 to meet recommended per capita fish consumption, or to maintain current consumption, indicate that even well-managed coastal fisheries will only be able to meet the demand in 6 of 22 PICTs. Governments of many PICTs will need to increase local access to tuna, and develop small-pond aquaculture, to provide food security. Diversifying the supply of fish will also make rural households in the Pacific more resilient to natural disasters, social and political instability, and the uncertainty of climate change.
- Rice, J.C. and Garcia, S.M. Fisheries, food security, climate change, and biodiversity: characteristics of the sector and perspectives on emerging issues. ICES Journal of Marine Science 68(6): 1343-1353, 2011.
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This paper reviews global projections to 2050 for human population growth and food production, both assuming constant climate and taking account of climate-related changes in growing conditions. It also reviews statistics on nutritional protein requirements, as well as how those requirements are met by fish on a regional basis. To meet projected food requirements, the production of fish has to increase by ~50% from current levels. The paper also summarizes the main pressures on marine biodiversity that are expected to result from the impacts of changing climate on marine ecosystems, as well as the management measures and policy actions promoted to address those pressures. It highlights that most of the actions being proposed to address pressures on marine biodiversity are totally incompatible with the actions considered necessary to meet future food security needs, particularly in less developed parts of the world. The paper does not propose a solution to these conflicting pulls on policies for conservation and sustainable use. Rather, it emphasizes that there is a need for the two communities of experts and policy-makers to collaborate in finding a single compatible suite of policies and management measures, to allow coherent action on these crucial and difficult problems.
- Garcia, S.M. and Rosenberg, A.A. Food security and marine capture fisheries: characteristics, trends, drivers and future perspectives. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365(1554): 2869-2880, 2010.
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World population is expected to grow from the present 6.8 billion people to about 9 billion by 2050. The growing need for nutritious and healthy food will increase the demand for fisheries products from marine sources, whose productivity is already highly stressed by excessive fishing pressure, growing organic pollution, toxic contamination, coastal degradation and climate change. Looking towards 2050, the question is how fisheries governance, and the national and international policy and legal frameworks within which it is nested, will ensure a sustainable harvest, maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functions, and adapt to climate change. This paper looks at global fisheries production, the state of resources, contribution to food security and governance. It describes the main changes affecting the sector, including geographical expansion, fishing capacity-building, natural variability, environmental degradation and climate change. It identifies drivers and future challenges, while suggesting how new science, policies and interventions could best address those challenges.
- Srinivasan, U.T., Cheung, W.W.L., Watson, R., and Sumaila, U.R. Food security implications of global marine catch losses due to overfishing. Journal of Bioeconomics 12(3): 183-200, 2010.
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Excess fishing capacity and the growth in global demand for fishery products have made overfishing ubiquitous in the world's oceans. Here we describe the potential catch losses due to unsustainable fishing in all countries' exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and on the high seas over 1950–2004. To do so, we relied upon catch and price statistics from the Sea Around Us Project as well as an empirical relationship we derived from species stock assessments by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. In 2000 alone, estimated global catch losses amounted to 7-36% of the actual tonnage landed that year, resulting in a landed value loss of between $6.4 and 36 billion (in 2004 constant US$). From 1950–2004, 36–53% of commercial species in 55–66% of EEZs may have been overfished. Referring to a species-level database of intrinsic vulnerability (V) based on life-history traits, it appears that susceptible species were depleted quickly and serially, with the average V of potential catch losses declining at a similar rate to that of actual landings. The three continental regions to incur greatest losses by mass were Europe, North America, and Asia-forming a geographic progression in time. But low-income and small island nations, heavily dependent on marine resources for protein, were impacted most profoundly. Our analysis shows that without the inexorable march of overfishing, ~20 million people worldwide could have averted undernourishment in 2000. For the same year, total catch in the waters of low-income food deficit nations might have been up to 17% greater than the tonnage actually landed there. The situation may be worst for Africa, which in our analysis registered losses of about 9–49% of its actual catches by mass in year 2000, thus seriously threatening progress towards the UN Millennium Development Goals.
- Lam, V.W.Y., Cheung, W.W.L., Swartz, W., and Sumaila, U.R. Climate change impacts on fisheries in West Africa: implications for economic, food and nutritional security. African Journal of Marine Science 34(1): 103-117, 2012.
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West Africa was identified as one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change in previous global analyses. Adverse changes in marine resources under climate change may pose significant threats to the livelihoods and well-being of the communities and countries that depend on fisheries for food and income. However, quantitative studies on the potential impact of climate change on fisheries and its subsequent impact on human well-being in West Africa are still scarce. This paper aims to assess the potential impacts of climate change on fisheries and their effects on the economics, food and nutritional security in West Africa. We use a dynamic bioclimatic envelope model to project future distribution and maximum fisheries catch potential of fish and invertebrates in West African waters. Our projections show that climate change may lead to substantial reduction in marine fish production and decline in fish protein supply in this region by the 2050s under the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) A1B. Combining with economic parameters, we project a 21% drop in annual landed value, 50% decline in fisheries-related jobs and a total annual loss of US$311 million in the whole economy of West Africa. These changes are expected to increase the vulnerability of the region through economics and food security of West Africa to climate change.
- Tacon, A.G.J. and Metian, M. Fishing for feed or fishing for food: Increasing global competition for small pelagic forage fish. Ambio 38(6): 294-302, 2009.
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At present, small pelagic forage fish species (includes anchovies, herring, mackerel, sardines, etc.) represent the largest landed species group in capture fisheries (27.3 million t or 29.7% of total capture fisheries landings in 2006). They also currently constitute the major species group actively fished and targeted for nonfood uses, including reduction into fishmeal and fish oil for use within compound animal feeds, or for direct animal feeding; the aquaculture sector alone consumed the equivalent of about 23.8 million t of fish (live weight equivalent) or 87% in the form of feed inputs in 2006. This article attempts to make a global analysis of the competition for small pelagic forage fish for direct human consumption and nonfood uses, particularly concerning the important and growing role played by small pelagic forage fish in the diet and food security of the poor and needy, especially within the developing countries of Africa and the Sub-Saharan region.
- Fabinyi, M. Historical, cultural and social perspectives on luxury seafood consumption in China. Environmental Conservation 39(1): 83-92, 2012.
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Since China is a leading market for a number of types of seafood, and much of this seafood is imported from other countries, Chinese consumption of seafood is an issue of vital importance to many of the world's fisheries. Focusing on luxury seafood, in particular bêche-de-mer, shark fin and live reef food fish, this paper firstly examines the links between Chinese consumption and species population trends in source countries. After a discussion of current efforts at conservation and management of these fisheries, the paper shows how the consumption of luxury seafood in contemporary China is intertwined with broader historical trends, including the expansion of Southern Chinese cuisine; cultural beliefs and traditions, in particular surrounding elements of traditional Chinese medicine; and most importantly, notions of social status and conspicuous consumption linked to the development of the Chinese economy and social stratification. The paper points to the role of the historical, cultural and social processes that underlie Chinese luxury seafood consumption, and to the need for greater levels of action among various actors to address this consumption if sustainability is to be achieved.
- Li, W., Wang, Y., and Norman, B. A preliminary survey of whale shark Rhincodon typus catch and trade in China: an emerging crisis. Journal of Fish Biology 80(5): 1608-1618, 2012.
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This study gives an account of spatial and temporal distribution of whale shark Rhincodon typus catch events in China on the basis of historical records and information obtained from interviews with fishing industry stakeholders. A total of 186 R. typus were recorded with key harvest areas identified as in Hainan and Zhejiang, and the peak catching seasons were May to June and September to October. Aspects of the R. typus trade are discussed, including products, markets and the process. The results suggest that R. typus is increasingly becoming a targeted resource in China as a consequence of fierce competition for large shark fins and an emerging local market for consumption of all body parts. Current obstacles and potential measures for sustainable exploitation and trade of R. typus are discussed.
- Agnew, D.J., Pearce, J., Pramod, G., Peatman, T., Watson, R., Beddington, J.R., and Pitcher, T.J. Estimating the worldwide extent of illegal fishing. PLoS ONE 4(2): art. e4570, 2009.
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Illegal and unreported fishing contributes to overexploitation of fish stocks and is a hindrance to the recovery of fish populations and ecosystems. This study is the first to undertake a world-wide analysis of illegal and unreported fishing. Reviewing the situation in 54 countries and on the high seas, we estimate that lower and upper estimates of the total value of current illegal and unreported fishing losses worldwide are between $10 bn and $23.5 bn annually, representing between 11 and 26 million tonnes. Our data are of sufficient resolution to detect regional differences in the level and trend of illegal fishing over the last 20 years, and we can report a significant correlation between governance and the level of illegal fishing. Developing countries are most at risk from illegal fishing, with total estimated catches in West Africa being 40% higher than reported catches. Such levels of exploitation severely hamper the sustainable management of marine ecosystems. Although there have been some successes in reducing the level of illegal fishing in some areas, these developments are relatively recent and follow growing international focus on the problem. This paper provides the baseline against which successful action to curb illegal fishing can be judged.
- Polacheck, T. Assessment of IUU fishing for Southern Bluefin Tuna. Marine Policy 36(5): 1150-1165, 2012.
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Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is recognized as one of the largest threats to the sustainability of the world's fisheries. This paper focuses on IUU fishing in the context of unreported catches by members or co-operating non-members of regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and their implications for scientific assessments of stock status and management advice. A review of Japanese market statistics was undertaken in 2006 by an independent panel in relation to catches of southern bluefin tuna (SBT). Based on this review, the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT) concluded that very substantial and continuous unreported catches of SBT had been taken by longline vessels since at least the early 1990s. While uncertainty exists about the fleets contributing to these IUU catches, the assumption used within the CCSBT Scientific Committee is that a significant proportion of these were taken by Japanese longliners. Implications of these unreported catches for the stock assessments by RFMOs are discussed in light of the central role that Japanese vessel reported data have in the assessment of the world's tuna and billfish stocks. Results indicate that it is plausible that the unreported catches of SBT stem from the misreporting of catches as other tuna species and/or the location of fishing effort. The magnitude and extended period of the unreported SBT catches highlight the wide-spread risks of relying on fishery dependent logbook data in the absence of verification. An urgent need exists for minimum standards of verification of catch, effort and landing statistics for use in scientific assessments. The fisheries science community needs to be more pro-active in the development of such standards and the implementation of independent monitoring and verification. In addition, there is a need to reform the operation of the scientific bodies of RFMOs in terms of transparency, the treatment of uncertainty and the burden of proof if they are to be effective in providing objective scientific advice consistent with the intent of international agreements.
- Österblom, H. and Bodin, Ö. Global cooperation among diverse organizations to reduce illegal fishing in the Southern Ocean. Conservation Biology 26(4): 638-648, 2012.
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Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is prevalent globally and has detrimental effects on commercial fish stocks and nontarget species. Effective monitoring and enforcement aimed at reducing the level of IUU fishing in extensive, remote ocean fisheries requires international collaboration. Changes in trade and vessel activities further complicate enforcement. We used a web-based survey of governmental and nongovernmental organizations engaged in reducing IUU fishing in the Southern Ocean to collect information on interorganizational collaborations. We used social-network analyses to examine the nature of collaborations among the identified 117 organizations engaged in reducing IUU fishing. International collaboration improved the ability to control and manage harvest of commercially important toothfish (Dissostichus spp.) stocks and reduced bycatch of albatrosses (Diomedeidae) and petrels (Procellariidae) in longlines of IUU fishing vessels. The diverse group of surveyed organizations cooperated frequently, thereby making a wide range of resources available for improved detection of suspected IUU vessels and trade flows, cooperation aimed at prosecuting suspected offenders or developing new policy measures. Our results suggest the importance of a central agency for coordination and for maintaining commonly agreed-upon protocols for communication that facilities collaboration. Despite their differences, the surveyed organizations have developed common perceptions about key problems associated with IUU fishing. This has likely contributed to a sustained willingness to invest in collaborations. Our results show that successful international environmental governance can be accomplished through interorganizational collaborations. Such cooperation requires trust, continuous funding, and incentives for actors to participate.
- Davies, R.W.D., Cripps, S. J., Nickson, A., and Porter, G. Defining and estimating global marine fisheries bycatch. Marine Policy 33(4): 661-672, 2009.
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Unselective fishing catches non-target organisms as 'bycatch' - an issue of critical ocean conservation and resource management concern. However, the situation is confused because perceptions of target and non-target catch vary widely, impeding efforts to estimate bycatch globally. To remedy this, the term needs to be redefined as a consistent definition that establishes what should be considered bycatch. A new definition is put forward as: 'bycatch is catch that is either unused or unmanaged'. Applying this definition to global marine fisheries data conservatively indicates that bycatch represents 40.4 percent of global marine catches, exposing systemic gaps in fisheries policy and management.
- Bellido, J., Santos, M., Pennino, M., Valeiras, X., and Pierce, G. Fishery discards and bycatch: solutions for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management? Hydrobiologia 670(1): 317-333, 2011.
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It has been widely acknowledged that fishery discard practices constitute a purposeless waste of valuable living resources, which plays an important role in the depletion of marine populations. Furthermore, discarding may have a number of adverse ecological impacts in marine ecosystems, provoking changes in the overall structure of trophic webs and habitats, which in turn could pose risks for the sustainability of current fisheries. The present review aims to describe the current state-of-the-art in discards research, with particular emphasis on the needs and challenges associated with the implementation of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM) in European waters. We briefly review the international and European policy contexts of discarding, how discard data are collected and incorporated into stock assessments, selectivity in fishing and the main consequences of discarding for ecosystem dynamics. We then review implementation issues related to reducing discards under the EAFM and the associated scientific challenges, and conclude with some comments on lessons learned and future directions.
- Lewison, R.L., Soykan, C.U., Cox, T., Peckham, H., Pilcher, N., LeBoeuf, N., McDonald, S., Moore, J., Safina, C., and Crowder, L.B. Ingredients for addressing the challenges of fisheries bycatch. Bulletin of Marine Science 87(2): 235-250, 2011.
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Minimizing fisheries bycatch, the incidental capture of non-target species, is a global environmental challenge. In many regions, bycatch of imperiled species is one of a number of issues that threatens species viability and impedes the development of sustainable fisheries. Effectively addressing bycatch of species of conservation concern and improving fisheries sustainability require cross-sectoral integration of information on the biological, socioeconomic, and political contexts of each fishery. Several gaps present simultaneous challenges, including: limited engagement with fisher communities, a lack of data, a need for more robust analyses of available data, and a need for coordinated governance from local to global scales. Here we present a framework to address fisheries bycatch that builds on established methods in community collaboration and engagement, field-based interviews, quantitative bycatch analyses, and ocean policy governance. Although these individual approaches to reduce bycatch are well established, there has yet to be a comprehensive application of an integrated approach. We review these essential approaches and present a broadly applicable model for their integration.
- Anderson, S.C., Flemming, J.M., Watson, R., and Lotze, H.K. Serial exploitation of global sea cucumber fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 12(3): 317-339, 2011.
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In recent decades, invertebrate fisheries have expanded in catch and value worldwide. One increasingly harvested group is sea cucumbers (class Holothuroidea), which are highly valued in Asia and sold as trepang or bêche-de-mer. We compiled global landings, economic data, and country-specific assessment and management reports to synthesize global trends in sea cucumber fisheries, evaluate potential drivers, and test for local and global serial exploitation patterns. Although some sea cucumber fisheries have existed for centuries, catch trends of most individual fisheries followed boom-and-bust patterns since the 1950s, declining nearly as quickly as they expanded. New fisheries expanded five to six times faster in 1990 compared to 1960 and at an increasing distance from Asia, encompassing a global fishery by the 1990s. Global sea cucumber production was correlated to the Japanese yen at a leading lag. Regional assessments revealed that population declines from overfishing occurred in 81% of sea cucumber fisheries, average harvested body size declined in 35%, harvesters moved from near- to off-shore regions in 51% and from high- to low-value species in 76%. Thirty-eight per cent of sea cucumber fisheries remained unregulated, and illegal catches were of concern in half. Our results suggest that development patterns of sea cucumber fisheries are largely predictable, often unsustainable and frequently too rapid for effective management responses. We discuss potential ecosystem and human community consequences and urge for better monitoring and reporting of catch and abundance, proper scientific stock assessment and consideration of international trade regulations to ensure long-term and sustainable harvesting of sea cucumbers worldwide.
- Lam, V.Y.Y. and Sadovy de Mitcheson, Y. The sharks of South East Asia – unknown, unmonitored and unmanaged. Fish and Fisheries 12(1): 51-74, 2011.
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Sharks fisheries have declined globally due to over- and unregulated fishing. As with many collapsed and unmonitored coastal fisheries, information is difficult to obtain, yet it is important to understand the historical changes determining population trends and evaluate the current status of sharks in order to conserve these vulnerable species. Here, we document for the first time the history and general condition of the shark fisheries of Southern China, specifically Hong Kong, and Guangdong, Fujian and Hainan Provinces. This study shows, through the use of historical literature and anecdotal accounts, including fisher interviews, that all known shark fisheries in the region collapsed between the 1970s and the 1990s. Of the 109 species present historically in the South China Sea, only 18 species were recorded in current market surveys, of which all were landed as bycatch and 65% were below the size of sexual maturity. Markets are dominated by smaller species, including the spadenose shark (Scoliodon laticaudus) and the whitespotted bambooshark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum). Marketed large shark species are almost all below the size of sexual maturation, evidence of growth overfishing and a factor in recruitment overfishing. Some species, like the whale (Rhincodon typus) and basking sharks (Cetorhinus maximus), are clearly vulnerable to local extinction without intervention. Given the inherent vulnerability of sharks and the overfished states of many sharks, there is clearly an urgent need to formulate impacting conservation and management plans for these rapidly declining species in a region that has the highest demand for shark products globally.
- Juan-Jordá, M.J., Mosqueira, I., Cooper, A.B., Freire, J., and Dulvy, N.K. Global population trajectories of tunas and their relatives. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [USA] 108(51): 20650-20655, 2011.
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Tunas and their relatives dominate the world's largest ecosystems and sustain some of the most valuable fisheries. The impacts of fishing on these species have been debated intensively over the past decade, giving rise to divergent views on the scale and extent of the impacts of fisheries on pelagic ecosystems. We use all available age-structured stock assessments to evaluate the adult biomass trajectories and exploitation status of 26 populations of tunas and their relatives (17 tunas, 5 mackerels, and 4 Spanish mackerels) from 1954 to 2006. Overall, populations have declined, on average, by 60% over the past half century, but the decline in the total adult biomass is lower (52%), driven by a few abundant populations. The trajectories of individual populations depend on the interaction between life histories, ecology, and fishing pressure. The steepest declines are exhibited by two distinct groups: the largest, longest lived, highest value temperate tunas and the smaller, short-lived mackerels, both with most of their populations being overexploited. The remaining populations, mostly tropical tunas, have been fished down to approximately maximum sustainable yield levels, preventing further expansion of catches in these fisheries. Fishing mortality has increased steadily to the point where around 12.5% of the tunas and their relatives are caught each year globally. Overcapacity of these fisheries is jeopardizing their long-term sustainability. To guarantee higher catches, stabilize profits, and reduce collateral impacts on marine ecosystems requires the rebuilding of overexploited populations and stricter management measures to reduce overcapacity and regulate threatening trade.
- Couturier, L.I.E., Marshall, A.D., Jaine, F.R.A., Kashiwagi, T., Pierce, S.J., Townsend, K.A., Weeks, S.J., Bennett, M.B., and Richardson, A.J. Biology, ecology and conservation of the Mobulidae. Journal of Fish Biology 80(5): 1075-1119, 2012.
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The Mobulidae are zooplanktivorous elasmobranchs comprising two recognized species of manta rays (Manta spp.) and nine recognized species of devil rays (Mobula spp.). They are found circumglobally in tropical, subtropical and temperate coastal waters. Although mobulids have been recorded for over 400 years, critical knowledge gaps still compromise the ability to assess the status of these species. On the basis of a review of 263 publications, a comparative synthesis of the biology and ecology of mobulids was conducted to examine their evolution, taxonomy, distribution, population trends, movements and aggregation, reproduction, growth and longevity, feeding, natural mortality and direct and indirect anthropogenic threats. There has been a marked increase in the number of published studies on mobulids since c. 1990, particularly for the genus Manta, although the genus Mobula remains poorly understood. Mobulid species have many common biological characteristics although their ecologies appear to be species-specific, and sometimes region-specific. Movement studies suggest that mobulids are highly mobile and have the potential to rapidly travel large distances. Fishing pressure is the major threat to many mobulid populations, with current levels of exploitation in target fisheries unlikely to be sustainable. Advances in the fields of population genetics, acoustic and satellite tracking, and stable-isotope and fatty-acid analyses will provide new insights into the biology and ecology of these species. Future research should focus on the uncertain taxonomy of mobulid species, the degree of overlap between their large-scale movement and human activities such as fisheries and pollution, and the need for management of inter-jurisdictional fisheries in developing nations to ensure their long-term sustainability. Closer collaboration among researchers worldwide is necessary to ensure standardized sampling and modelling methodologies to underpin global population estimates and status.
- Oosterveer, P. and Spaargaren, G. Organising consumer involvement in the greening of global food flows: the role of environmental NGOs in the case of marine fish. Environmental Politics 20(1): 97-114, 2011.
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Consumers are increasingly concerned about the impacts of global food provision, but especially in the case of marine fish, their unease is complex, locally specific and still evolving. Responding to these apprehensions solely by promoting short local supply chains is restricted to niche markets and leaves other opportunities for increasing sustainability untouched. Additional, complementary strategies for the greening of food supply chains are examined. To analyse the interaction between local and global dynamics, the sociology of networks and flows is applied to the case of marine fish production and consumption in order to identify innovative governance arrangements that make global supply chains more sustainable. Certifying fisheries and the use of fish wallet cards by consumers are examples of new governance arrangements that connect sustainability concerns of consumers with production decisions made by distant actors. To improve the effectiveness of these arrangements, new roles are proposed for environmental NGOs as representatives of local actors and as managers of trust in certifying institutions.
- Parkes, G., Young, J.A., Walmsley, S.F., Abel, R., Harman, J., Horvat, P., Lem, A., MacFarlane, A., Mens, M., and Nolan, C. Behind the signs: A global review of fish sustainability information schemes. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18(4): 344-356, 2010.
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This article presents the results of a global review of organizations that provide sustainable fisheries information including ecolabels, recommendation lists, and supermarkets to consumers and supply chain intermediaries. It examined 17 organizations and key supermarkets that communicate on the sustainability of world fisheries and aquaculture products. Certification schemes assess a relatively small number of specific fisheries and indicate sustainability through labels. Recommendation lists cover more species and areas but in less detail. Most schemes showed improving conformance with FAO guidelines for fisheries and aquaculture certification. However, significant variation in fisheries' assessment exists, calling into question the accuracy and precision of information and advice provided. Inconsistent approaches and contradictory advice among certification schemes and recommendation lists potentially increase consumer confusion and reduce their credibility. The review identifies seven critical attributes that schemes must address: scope, accuracy, independence, precision, transparency, standardization, and cost-effectiveness and recommends that certification schemes and recommendation lists enhance their consistency and credibility through compliance with these attributes and FAO guidelines. Fish sustainability information schemes play an important role in securing a sustainable future for the oceans. Uptake of this review's recommendations should reduce consumer confusion and increase confidence in the benefits of sustainable purchasing.
- Jacquet, J., Pauly, D., Ainley, D., Holt, S., Dayton, P., and Jackson, J. Seafood stewardship in crisis. Nature 467(7311): 28-29, 2010.
- Tlusty, M.F. Environmental improvement of seafood through certification and ecolabelling: theory and analysis. Fish and Fisheries 13(1): 1-13, 2012.
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The study of environmental impacts of seafood production as a result of ecolabelling and certification is a young yet rapidly growing discipline that lacks theoretical models. Pieces of the model have been suggested in the literature, and these pieces are formalized here realizing the current operating parameters of the global seafood industry. The derived pull-threshold model assumes that if producers exceed the threshold, there is no incentive to improve while if too far below, improvement is most likely beyond technical or financial means. Thus, a single certification is only a marginal solution to the larger picture. Those producers immediately below the certification threshold are within range or 'pull' of the threshold to improve as a result of certification. Results from a single threshold model applied to compliance data indicated that a maximum improvement of 12.5%, achieved when the pull was the greatest and the threshold was at the lower end of the impact distribution. When impacts were continuous (e.g. escapes in aquaculture), greater improvement was observed with thresholds targeting the producers at the higher end of the impact distribution. In all cases, improvement was maximized with a triple threshold model, indicating that single threshold scenario will not drive the greatest movement towards environmental improvement throughout the industry. Innovation is potentially more important in reducing environmental impacts of seafood production and needs to be accounted for as the seafood certification or ecolabelling continues to mature.
- Martin, S.M., Cambridge, T.A., Grieve, C., Nimmo, F.M., and Agnew, D.J. An evaluation of environmental changes within fisheries involved in the Marine Stewardship Council certification scheme. Reviews in Fisheries Science 20(2): 61-69, 2012.
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There is ongoing debate regarding the value of market-based instruments, such as certification schemes, as an approach to improving the environmental impact of fisheries. This article evaluates the effects of the Marine Stewardship Council on the environmental performance of fisheries over the period before and after certification. A large number of fisheries (n = 447) have undertaken pre-assessments, and in most cases (83%), the auditors recommended that significant improvements should be made before entering full assessment. In cases where substantial improvements were required, the proportion of performance indicators scoring over 80 (considered by the Marine Stewardship Council to be the point of best practice) increased by 22% between pre-assessment and certification. Significant improvements continued after certification, characterized by a 16% increase in the proportion of performance indicators scoring over 80 over a period of five years. Increases in scores assigned by auditors were significantly correlated with increases in real environmental performance (such as increases in stock biomass or the development of protected areas) and improvements in information, which led to increasing certainty that impacts were within sustainable limits. Although results show that certification is associated with real environmental benefits, most improvements are made by fisheries that require significant changes to enter the program. [Supplementary materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Reviews in Fisheries Science for the following free supplemental resources: information and references used in order to analyze the trends related to each fishery performance indicator].
- Gutiérrez, N.L. et al. Eco-label conveys reliable information on fish stock health to seafood consumers. PLoS ONE 7(8): art. e43765, 2012.
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Concerns over fishing impacts on marine populations and ecosystems have intensified the need to improve ocean management. One increasingly popular market-based instrument for ecological stewardship is the use of certification and eco-labeling programs to highlight sustainable fisheries with low environmental impacts. The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is the most prominent of these programs. Despite widespread discussions about the rigor of the MSC standards, no comprehensive analysis of the performance of MSC-certified fish stocks has yet been conducted. We compared status and abundance trends of 45 certified stocks with those of 179 uncertified stocks, finding that 74% of certified fisheries were above biomass levels that would produce maximum sustainable yield, compared with only 44% of uncertified fisheries. On average, the biomass of certified stocks increased by 46% over the past 10 years, whereas uncertified fisheries increased by just 9%. As part of the MSC process, fisheries initially go through a confidential pre-assessment process. When certified fisheries are compared with those that decline to pursue full certification after pre-assessment, certified stocks had much lower mean exploitation rates (67% of the rate producing maximum sustainable yield vs. 92% for those declining to pursue certification), allowing for more sustainable harvesting and in many cases biomass rebuilding. From a consumer's point of view this means that MSC-certified seafood is 3-5 times less likely to be subject to harmful fishing than uncertified seafood. Thus, MSC-certification accurately identifies healthy fish stocks and conveys reliable information on stock status to seafood consumers.
- Parker, R.W.R. and Tyedmers, P.H. Uncertainty and natural variability in the ecological footprint of fisheries: A case study of reduction fisheries for meal and oil. Ecological Indicators 16: 76-83, 2012.
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It is well understood that measurements of ecological footprint and many other ecological indicators are associated with varying degrees of uncertainty, yet imprecision in ecological footprint results is rarely assessed or communicated. We calculated the marine portion of the ecological footprint of products derived from five reduction fisheries: Peruvian anchovy (Engraulis ringens), Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) and Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). Monte Carlo analysis was used to measure the imprecision in marine footprint measurements resulting from multiple sources of uncertainty and natural variability in input parameters, and to determine the degree to which imprecision affects our ability to draw meaningful conclusions when comparing products sourced from different fisheries on the basis of ecological footprint. Gulf menhaden and Antarctic krill were found to have the smallest marine footprints, while blue whiting was found to have the largest. Results show that there is much uncertainty associated with marine footprint calculations and that the most significant drivers of this imprecision are uncertainty and natural variability regarding measurements of trophic level and trophic interactions. Marine footprint is highly correlated with trophic level, and clear differences can be seen when comparing species of very different trophic levels. However, comparisons of products derived from species' with similar trophic levels are less likely to provide conclusive results. The choice of mass, protein or energy content as the basis of comparison was also considered and was found to influence the results, particularly when comparing species with similar trophic levels. While it is likely that imprecision of marine footprint measurements of fishery-derived products will remain high, technological improvements and a better understanding of marine ecosystem dynamics may make future studies more precise.
- Villasante, S., Rodríguez, D., Antelo, M., Quaas, M., and Österblom, H. The Global Seafood Market Performance Index: A theoretical proposal and potential empirical applications. Marine Policy 36(1): 142-152, 2012.
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The objective of this paper is to create the Global Seafood Market Performance Index (GSMPI) in order to compare fisheries-related impacts of different countries across spatial and temporal scales. The article presents the first effort to investigate the trade-offs among marine ecosystems, seafood markets, poverty alleviation, food security and governance at worldwide level by creating the GSMPI. The GSMPI will provide relevant information on environmental, governance, socioeconomic, food security, corruption, seafood market, and corporate social responsibility issues for individual decision-makers and scientists, national governments, and stakeholders as well as international fishing and aquaculture industries.
- Rumbold, D.G., Engel, M., and Axelrad, D.M. Risk of ill-informed decision-making when choosing your favorite fish. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 17(5): 1156-1169, 2011.
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Risk to children of women who choose a favorite fish without regard to its methylmercury or omega-3 content was estimated under three consumption scenarios: (1) current fish consumption rate by U.S. women if limited to orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus), (2) 12 oz of roughy per week, and (3) roughy consumption to meet docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) requirements. Risks were similarly assessed if king mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla) were eaten. Based on mercury concentrations in fillets purchased from 2004–2007 (0.73 ± 0.29 mg Hg/kg; n = 45), women would have an 85% probability of exceeding USEPA's reference dose (RfD) if they ate only roughy. Based on literature-derived concentrations, they would have a 91% probability of exceeding the RfD if they ate only mackerel. Increasing consumption of either fish to 12 oz per week would increase their probability of exceeding the RfD to 100%. Attempting to meet DHA requirements through eating these fish also results in a 100% probability of exceeding the RfD; however, owing to its very low DHA content, roughy consumption would result in exceedance by 100-fold. These results highlight recommendations of others that benefits and risks of fish consumption should be presented together to enable consumers to make informed decisions.
- Jacquet, J.L. and Pauly, D. Trade secrets: Renaming and mislabeling of seafood. Marine Policy 32(3): 309-318, 2008.
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As the global trade and market for seafood has grown, so have the twin problems of renaming and mislabeling. Resource scarcity, the potential for greater profits, and weak legislation have all encouraged incorrect labeling, the results of which include consumer losses, the subversion of eco-marketing, further degradation of fisheries resources, and even adverse effects on human health. This paper examines the extent and consequences of renaming and mislabeling seafood, the state of current legislation, and the importance of future policies, with particular attention to the US, where 80% of the seafood is imported and more than one-third of all fish are mislabeled. Policy recommendations include governments' support for a global mandate to label species, country of origin, and catching or production method on all seafood with high penalties for infractions. Chain of custody standards, such as those recently implemented by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), should also be considered for adoption worldwide. To garner support for this legislation, consumers must become better acquainted and concerned with their seafood and its origins.
- Marko, P.B., Nance, H.A., and Guynn, K.D. Genetic detection of mislabeled fish from a certified sustainable fishery. Current Biology 21(15): R621-R622, 2011.
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- Miller, D.D. and Mariani, S. Smoke, mirrors, and mislabeled cod: poor transparency in the European seafood industry. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8(10): 517-521, 2010.
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Accurate seafood labels can play a role in encouraging sustainable fisheries operation, by helping consumers to correctly identify the origins of seafood products, and thereby allowing them to make informed, responsible purchasing decisions. Yet, the renaming and mislabeling of seafood-as a consequence of ineffective regulations or poor policy implementation-remain serious problems. Here, we show that 39 out of 156 (25%) cod and haddock products, randomly sampled from supermarkets, fishmongers' shops, and take-away restaurants throughout Dublin, Ireland, were genetically identified as entirely different species from that indicated on the product labels, and therefore were considered mislabeled under European Union (EU) regulations. More significantly, 28 out of 34 (82.4%) smoked fish samples were found to be mislabeled. These results indicate that the strict EU policies currently in place to regulate seafood labeling have not been adequately implemented and enforced. Although the problem of seafood mislabeling has recently been brought to public attention in North America, we show here that product mislabeling is also an issue in Europe. We suggest that-through sustained consumer misinformation mislabeling may hamper efforts to allow depleted cod stocks to recover.
- Garcia-Vazquez, E. et al. High level of mislabeling in Spanish and Greek hake markets suggests the fraudulent introduction of African species. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59(2): 475-480, 2011.
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DNA analysis of hake products commercialized in southern European (Spanish and Greek) market chains have demonstrated more than 30% mislabeling, on the basis of species substitution. Tails and fillets were more mislabeled than other products, such as slices and whole pieces. African species were substitute species for products labeled as American and European species, and we suggest it is a case of deliberate economically profitable mislabeling because real market prices of European and American hake products are higher than those of African in Spanish market chains. The presented results suggest fraud detection that disadvantages African producers. Government-mandated genetic surveys of commercial hakes and the use of subsequent statements of fair trade on labels of seafood products could help to reduce fraud levels in a global market of increasingly conscious consumers sensitive to ethical issues.
- Miller, D., Jessel, A., and Mariani, S. Seafood mislabelling: comparisons of two western European case studies assist in defining influencing factors, mechanisms and motives. Fish and Fisheries 13(3): 345-358, 2012.
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The global seafood industry, influenced by consumer demand, is closely linked to the global fishing industry, which determines the variety of fish available for consumption. The recently revealed issue of seafood mislabelling threatens to weaken this link by removing consumer power to influence patterns of fisheries exploitation through informed choice. Recognizing this, there is an urgent need to go beyond the mere documentation of the phenomenon and learn more about the origins of this problem and the nature of factors influencing its occurrence to develop solutions. In an attempt to understand seafood mislabelling more thoroughly in Europe, 226 cod products were purchased from Ireland and the UK, genetically identified using a DNA barcoding technique (COI barcoding gene), and species identification results were compared against product labels. Cod mislabelling proved more severe in Ireland than in the UK (28.4% vs. 7.4%). Moreover, whereas data show that in Ireland, cheaper species are sold as cod, in the UK, threatened Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) may be sold as 'sustainably sourced' Pacific cod. Considering these countries operate under the same EU policies for seafood traceability and labelling, it is likely that this situation has been influenced by heightened consumer awareness in the UK, which has created an environment where mislabelling is discouraged. In addition to identifying samples, traceability information from packaged cod was used to trace products back to supplying companies. Although inconclusive in determining blame, this exercise has demonstrated that using traceability information can add explanatory power when attempting to determine responsibility for the occurrence of mislabelling.
- Cline, E. Marketplace substitution of Atlantic salmon for Pacific salmon in Washington State detected by DNA barcoding. Food Research International 45(1): 388-393, 2012.
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Accurate identification of seafood in the marketplace is an issue of international concern, due to high rates of market substitution of cheaper or more widely available species for expensive or high-demand species. Salmon samples from stores and restaurants throughout western Washington, USA were tested using DNA sequencing of a short section of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene (DNA barcoding) to identify Atlantic salmon substituted for Pacific salmon. Of 99 salmon samples, 11 (11%) were Atlantic salmon sold as Pacific salmon. More than 38% of restaurant samples were mislabeled to species, while only 7% of store samples were mislabeled. Market substitution rates were significantly greater in restaurants compared to stores, and consistently greater in winter compared to spring, although not significantly. The high market substitution rate in restaurants documents a pressing need for more monitoring and enforcement specifically in restaurants. DNA barcoding is a valuable tool for rapid and definitive authentication of salmon in the marketplace, and should be more widely adopted to discourage market substitution.
- Cawthorn, D.-M., Steinman, H.A., and Witthuhn, R.C. DNA barcoding reveals a high incidence of fish species misrepresentation and substitution on the South African market. Food Research International 46(1): 30-40, 2012.
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The mislabelling of fishery products has emerged as a serious problem on global markets, raising the need for the development of analytical tools for species authentication. DNA barcoding, based on the sequencing of a standardised region of the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene, has received considerable attention as an accurate and broadly applicable tool for animal species identifications. The aim of this study was to investigate the utility of DNA barcoding for the identification of a variety of commercial fish in South Africa and, in so doing, to estimate the prevalence of species substitution and fraud prevailing on this market. A ca. 650 base pair (bp) region of the COI gene was sequenced from 248 fish samples collected from seafood wholesalers and retail outlets in South Africa, following which species identifications were made in the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) and in GenBank. DNA barcoding was able to provide unambiguous species-level identifications for 235 of 248 (95%) samples analysed. Overall, 10 of 108 (9%) samples from wholesalers and 43 of 140 (31%) from retailers were identified as different species to the ones indicated at the point of sale. Although some cases of mislabelling were potentially unintentional due to misapplied market nomenclature, a far greater proportion represented serious and seemingly deliberate acts of fraud for the sake of increased profits. This study has highlighted that the existing legislation pertaining to seafood marketing in South Africa is inadequate or poorly enforced and requires urgent revision. In the light of the results presented here, DNA barcoding appears to hold great potential for fish authentication monitoring by both regulatory bodies and industry, the utilisation of which could enhance transparency and fair trade on the domestic fisheries market.
- Allison, E.H., Perry, A.L., Badjeck, M.C., Adger, W.N., Brown, K., Conway, D., Halls, A.S., Pilling, G.M., Reynolds, J.D., Andrew, N.L., and Dulvy, N.K. Vulnerability of national economies to the impacts of climate change on fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 10(2): 173-196, 2009.
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Anthropogenic global warming has significantly influenced physical and biological processes at global and regional scales. The observed and anticipated changes in global climate present significant opportunities and challenges for societies and economies. We compare the vulnerability of 132 national economies to potential climate change impacts on their capture fisheries using an indicator-based approach. Countries in Central and Western Africa (e.g. Malawi, Guinea, Senegal, and Uganda), Peru and Colombia in north-western South America, and four tropical Asian countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan, and Yemen) were identified as most vulnerable. This vulnerability was due to the combined effect of predicted warming, the relative importance of fisheries to national economies and diets, and limited societal capacity to adapt to potential impacts and opportunities. Many vulnerable countries were also among the world's least developed countries whose inhabitants are among the world's poorest and twice as reliant on fish, which provides 27% of dietary protein compared to 13% in less vulnerable countries. These countries also produce 20% of the world's fish exports and are in greatest need of adaptation planning to maintain or enhance the contribution that fisheries can make to poverty reduction. Although the precise impacts and direction of climate-driven change for particular fish stocks and fisheries are uncertain, our analysis suggests they are likely to lead to either increased economic hardship or missed opportunities for development in countries that depend upon fisheries but lack the capacity to adapt.
- Sumaila, U.R., Cheung, W.W.L., Lam, V.W.Y., Pauly, D., and Herrick, S. Climate change impacts on the biophysics and economics of world fisheries. Nature Climate Change 1(9): 449-456, 2011.
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Global marine fisheries are underperforming economically because of overfishing, pollution and habitat degradation. Added to these threats is the looming challenge of climate change. Observations, experiments and simulation models show that climate change would result in changes in primary productivity, shifts in distribution and changes in the potential yield of exploited marine species, resulting in impacts on the economics of fisheries worldwide. Despite the gaps in understanding climate change effects on fisheries, there is sufficient scientific information that highlights the need to implement climate change mitigation and adaptation policies to minimize impacts on fisheries.
- Perry, R.I. Potential impacts of climate change on marine wild capture fisheries: an update. Journal of Agricultural Science 149(S1): 63-75, 2011.
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This paper provides a brief update on the potential impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems and marine wild capture fisheries based on the scientific literature published since 2007. Current models predict shifts in fish distributions of 45-60 km per decade, with 0·80 of species moving poleward. With a high CO2 emissions scenario, little overall change in the global maximum potential fisheries catch is projected (±1%), although with high spatial variability: decreases of 40% are projected for the tropics, with increases of 30-70% for higher latitudes. Tropical nations appear to be most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on fisheries production. Coupled atmosphere-ocean-fish production-human society models are beginning to be developed for specific market systems. Results suggest that how society responds can have as large or larger an effect as the strength of the climate impact. Good observations of the impacts of climate change exist for high latitude, coral reef and North Atlantic systems. Management strategies are being developed to address climate change and fisheries, including risk and vulnerability assessment frameworks, pro-active planning with stakeholders regarding potential impacts and responses and examining existing regulations to identify gaps created by altered species distributions (e.g. unregulated fishing in newly ice-free areas). Overall, fisheries governance systems are needed which are flexible and can quickly adapt to changing ecological and human societal conditions. Significant knowledge gaps include a comprehensive and co-ordinated global network of observations to help distinguish climate change from variability, and increased detail in the structure and processes of models. Necessary next steps include reducing the uncertainties of climate impacts models at present, understanding the synergistic effects of multiple stressors and the inclusion of humans into coupled models and socio-economic analyses, in particular at regional and local scales. In the intermediate term, developing nations in tropical regions are likely to be most negatively impacted, whereas developed nations at higher latitudes are most likely to benefit. In the longer term, overall marine food security will depend on the impacts of climate change on marine primary production, for which the present projections are highly uncertain. Adoption of an integrated social-ecological approach that improves the adaptive capacities of ecological and human social systems will help to sustain food security from marine wild capture fisheries.
- Cooley, S.R., Lucey, N., Kite-Powell, H., and Doney, S.C. Nutrition and income from molluscs today imply vulnerability to ocean acidification tomorrow. Fish and Fisheries 13(2): 182-215, 2012.
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Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from human industrial activities are causing a progressive alteration of seawater chemistry, termed ocean acidification, which has decreased seawater pH and carbonate ion concentration markedly since the Industrial Revolution. Many marine organisms, like molluscs and corals, build hard shells and skeletons using carbonate ions, and they exhibit negative overall responses to ocean acidification. This adds to other chronic and acute environmental pressures and promotes shifts away from calcifier-rich communities. In this study, we examine the possible implications of ocean acidification on mollusc harvests worldwide by examining present production, consumption and export and by relating those data to present and future surface ocean chemistry forecast by a coupled climate-ocean model (Community Climate System 3.1; CCSM3). We identify the 'transition decade' when future ocean chemistry will distinctly differ from that of today (2010), and when mollusc harvest levels similar to those of the present cannot be guaranteed if present ocean chemistry is a significant determinant of today's mollusc production. We assess nations' vulnerability to ocean acidification-driven decreases in mollusc harvests by comparing nutritional and economic dependences on mollusc harvests, overall societal adaptability, and the amount of time until the transition decade. Projected transition decades for individual countries will occur 10-50 years after 2010. Countries with low adaptability, high nutritional or economic dependence on molluscs, rapidly approaching transition decades or rapidly growing populations will therefore be most vulnerable to ocean acidification-driven mollusc harvest decreases. These transition decades suggest how soon nations should implement strategies, such as increased aquaculture of resilient species, to help maintain current per capita mollusc harvests.
- Talmage, S.C. and Gobler, C.J. Effects of past, present, and future ocean carbon dioxide concentrations on the growth and survival of larval shellfish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [USA] 107(40): 17246-17251, 2010.
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The combustion of fossil fuels has enriched levels of CO2 in the world's oceans and decreased ocean pH. Although the continuation of these processes may alter the growth, survival, and diversity of marine organisms that synthesize CaCO3 shells, the effects of ocean acidification since the dawn of the industrial revolution are not clear. Here we present experiments that examined the effects of the ocean's past, present, and future (21st and 22nd centuries) CO2 concentrations on the growth, survival, and condition of larvae of two species of commercially and ecologically valuable bivalve shellfish (Mercenaria mercenaria and Argopecten irradians). Larvae grown under near preindustrial CO2 concentrations (250 ppm) displayed significantly faster growth and metamorphosis as well as higher survival and lipid accumulation rates compared with individuals reared under modern day CO2 levels. Bivalves grown under near preindustrial CO2 levels displayed thicker, more robust shells than individuals grown at present CO2 concentrations, whereas bivalves exposed to CO2 levels expected later this century had shells that were malformed and eroded. These results suggest that the ocean acidification that has occurred during the past two centuries may be inhibiting the development and survival of larval shellfish and contributing to global declines of some bivalve populations.
- Roberts, C. Reserves do have a key role in fisheries. Current Biology 22(11): R444-R446, 2012.
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A new study of the Great Barrier Reef proves a 100-year old conjecture correct: marine reserves do replenish populations in surrounding fishing grounds, while modern reserve networking theory is validated by exchange of offspring of animals among protected areas.
- Sumaila, U.R., Zeller, D., Watson, R., Alder, J., and Pauly, D. Potential costs and benefits of marine reserves in the high seas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 345: 305-310, 2007.
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The issue of conservation and sustainable use of high seas resources is increasingly becoming significant, as is reflected in the number of planned international activities in ocean science and management, e.g. the United Nations General Assembly Working Group on marine bio-diversity beyond national jurisdiction. Essentially, the increasing exploitation pressure on high and deep sea resources makes discussion of viable policy options for international waters an important topic. To our knowledge, this paper provides the first global, economically supported assessment of the impact on fisheries of potentially protecting a portion of the high seas in no-take marine protected areas. Such closures are likely to result in relatively little global annual profit loss. For example, closure of 20% of the high seas may lead to the loss of only 1.8% of the current global reported marine fisheries catch, and a decrease in profits to the high seas fleet of about US$270 million per year. Thus, at globally minimal costs, the international community could benefit substantially by securing insurance against extinctions and the loss of the spectacular marine diversity in the high and deep seas, while protecting many market and non-market values for the benefit of both current and future generations.
- Marinesque, S., Kaplan, D.M., and Rodwell, L.D. Global implementation of marine protected areas: Is the developing world being left behind? Marine Policy 36(3): 727-737, 2012.
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While the global network of marine protected areas (MPAs) has recently been evaluated in the light of bio-geographic targets, there has been no attempt to evaluate the relative conservation efforts made by the different nations with regards to their level of socio-economic development. Using information mostly gathered from the world database on protected areas (WDPA), this paper gives a comparative assessment of MPA progress in countries from different economic categories, ranging from advanced economies to least developed countries (LDCs). Potentially explanatory socio-economic and environmental factors, such as fishing activity and existence of vulnerable marine ecosystems, for variability between nations in the level of MPA implementation are also explored. Existing MPA databases demonstrate a clear gap between developed and developing nations in MPA establishment, with advanced economies accounting for two thirds of the global MPA network. Patterns of MPA use, however, remain extremely heterogeneous between countries within each development group. International agreements on marine conservation, above and beyond the influence of country socio-economic and environmental profiles, are identified as a stimulating factor to MPA implementation. The level dependence on marine resource extraction appears to impede MPA implementation, though the relationship is not statistically significant due to large heterogeneity among countries. Leading developed nations increasingly use MPAs to designate integrated and adaptive management areas, and implementation of large 'no-take' reserves in relatively-pristine overseas areas continues to accelerate. These analyses highlight certain limitations regarding our ability to assess the true conservation effectiveness of the existing global MPA network and the need for improved indicators of MPA restrictions and management efforts.
- Hargreaves-Allen, V., Mourato, S., and Milner-Gulland, E.J. A global evaluation of coral reef management performance: Are MPAs producing conservation and socio-economic improvements? Environmental Management 47(4): 684-700, 2011.
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There is a consensus that Marine Protected Area (MPA) performance needs regular evaluation against clear criteria, incorporating counterfactual comparisons of ecological and socio-economic performance. However, these evaluations are scarce at the global level. We compiled self-reports from managers and researchers of 78 coral reef-based MPAs world-wide, on the conservation and welfare improvements that their MPAs provide. We developed a suite of performance measures including fulfilment of design and management criteria, achievement of aims, the cessation of banned or destructive activities, change in threats, and measurable ecological and socio-economic changes in outcomes, which we evaluated with respect to the MPA's age, geographical location and main aims. The sample was found to be broadly representative of MPAs generally, and suggests that many MPAs do not achieve certain fundamental aims including improvements in coral cover over time (in 25% of MPAs), and conflict reduction (in 25%). However, the large majority demonstrated improvements in terms of slowing coral loss, reducing destructive uses and increasing tourism and local employment, despite many being small, underfunded and facing multiple large scale threats beyond the control of managers. However spatial comparisons suggest that in some regions MPAs are simply mirroring outside changes, with demonstrates the importance of testing for additionality. MPA benefits do not appear to increase linearly over time. In combination with other management efforts and regulations, especially those relating to large scale threat reduction and targeted fisheries and conflict resolution instruments, MPAs are an important tool to achieve coral reef conservation globally. Given greater resources and changes which incorporate best available science, such as larger MPAs and no-take areas, networks and reduced user pressure, it is likely that performance could further be enhanced. Performance evaluation should test for the generation of additional ecological and socio-economic improvements over time and compared to unmanaged areas as part of an adaptive management regime.
- Curtin, R. and Prellezo, R. Understanding marine ecosystem based management: A literature review. Marine Policy 34(5): 821-830, 2010.
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Ecosystem based management takes into account the interconnectedness and interdependent nature of ecosystem components and emphasizes the importance of ecosystem structures and functions which provide a range of services. The concept has now been adopted by many international agreements and national governments and is in the process of being implemented. This paper seeks to review the literature and to analyze the understanding of the subject. The term is defined and its implementation in fisheries and for all marine uses is analyzed. It has been concluded that to understand marine ecosystem based management one must consider ecosystems as complex adaptive systems which can show changes at higher levels from actions and processes occurring at lower levels. Recognizing that humans are part of these complex adaptive systems is vital in that their actions along with other processes can lead to transformations in ecosystem functioning. This recognition is also important to show how society can sustainably exploit these resources and that the inclusion of all stakeholders in the management process is necessary to legitimize the process. The uses of the precautionary principle along with adaptive management are seen to be useful tools in implementing these insights into the management of natural resources. Finally, the need for reducing consumption of fish is considered.
- Cowan, J.H., Rice, J.C., Walters, C.J., Hilborn, R., Essington, T.E., Day, J.W., and Boswell, K.M. Challenges for implementing an ecosystem approach to fisheries management. Marine and Coastal Fisheries 4(1): 496-510, 2012.
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The ecosystem approach is being promoted as the foundation of solutions to the unsustainability of fisheries. However, because the ecosystem approach is broadly inclusive, the science for its implementation is often considered to be overly complex and difficult. When the science needed for an ecosystem approach to fisheries is perceived this way, science products cannot keep pace with fisheries critics, thus encouraging partisan political interference in fisheries management and proliferation of "faith-based solutions." In this paper we argue that one way to effectively counter politicization of fisheries decision-making is to ensure that new ecosystem-based approaches in fisheries are viewed only as an emergent property of innovation in science and policy. We organize our essay using three major themes to focus the discussion: empirical, jurisdictional, and societal challenges. We undertake at least partial answers to the following questions: (1) has conventional fisheries management really failed?; (2) can short-comings in conventional fisheries management be augmented with new tools, such as allocation of rights?; (3) is the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) equivalent to Ecosystem-Based Management?; and (4) is restoration of degraded ecosystems a necessary component of an EAF?
- Pitcher, T.J., Kalikoski, D., Short, K., Varkey, D., and Pramod, G. An evaluation of progress in implementing ecosystem-based management of fisheries in 33 countries. Marine Policy 33(2): 223-232, 2009.
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The performance of 33 countries was evaluated for ecosystem-based management (EBM) of fisheries in three fields (principles, criteria and implementation) using quantitative ordination including uncertainty. No country rated overall as 'good', only four countries were 'adequate', while over half received 'fail' grades. A few developing countries performed better than many developed nations. Two case studies test the method. In Indonesia, Raja Ampat and Papua, rated similar to the national evaluation, but better performance might follow successful implementation of a planned EBM initiative. A workshop in Australia rated regional fisheries managed by New South Wales 20% lower for EBM than federally managed fisheries.
- Constable, A.J. Lessons from CCAMLR on the implementation of the ecosystem approach to managing fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 12(2): 138-151, 2011.
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The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is widely recognized as a leading international organization in developing best practice in the ecosystem approach to managing fisheries. CCAMLR provides a useful case study for examining the impediments to implementing ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) because it has EBFM principles embedded within its convention rather than having to make a transition from single-species management to an ecosystem approach. CCAMLR is demonstrating that (i) EBFM does not need to equate to complexity in management and (ii) methods can be developed to decide on spatial management strategies for fisheries so that predators of target species are not disproportionately affected as a result of spatial and/or temporal dependencies of predators on their prey. Science has an important role in implementing EBFM, not only in measuring and assessing the status of target species and their predators but also in designing cost-effective management strategies and in resolving disputes. Importantly, attention needs to be given to developing the capability and tools to overcome differences amongst scientists in providing advice to managers. The CCAMLR experience suggests that, without adequate safeguards, voluntary participation by fishing States in CCAMLR and its consensus environment do not provide strong foundations for achieving, in the long term, the ecosystem-based principles for managing fisheries when there is any degree of scientific uncertainty. Some solutions to these issues are discussed. Overall, broader-than-CCAMLR solutions amongst the international community as well as the continued commitment of CCAMLR Members will be required to resolve these issues.
- Berkes, F. Implementing ecosystem-based management: evolution or revolution? Fish and Fisheries DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00452.x, 2012.
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As a dominant paradigm, ecosystem-based fisheries have to come to terms with uncertainty and complexity, an interdisciplinary visioning of management objectives, and putting humans back into the ecosystem. The goal of this article is to suggest that implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) has to be 'revolutionary' in the sense of going beyond conventional practices. It would require the use of multiple disciplines and multiple objectives, dealing with technically unresolvable management problems of complex adaptive systems and expanding scope from management to governance. Developing the governance toolbox would require expanding into new kinds of interaction unforeseen by the mid-twentieth-century fathers of fishery science – governance that may involve cooperative, multilevel management, partnerships, social learning and knowledge co-production. In addition to incorporating relatively well-known resilience, adaptive management and co-management approaches, taking EBM to the next stage may include some of the following: conceptualizing EBM as a 'wicked problem'; conceptualizing fisheries as social-ecological systems; picking and choosing from an assortment of new governance approaches; and finding creative ways to handle complexity.
- Mora, C., Myers, R.A., Coll, M., Libralato, S., Pitcher, T.J., Sumaila, R.U., Zeller, D., Watson, R., Gaston, K.J., and Worm, B. Management effectiveness of the world's marine fisheries. PLoS Biology 7(6): art. e1000131, 2009.
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Ongoing declines in production of the world's fisheries may have serious ecological and socioeconomic consequences. As a result, a number of international efforts have sought to improve management and prevent overexploitation, while helping to maintain biodiversity and a sustainable food supply. Although these initiatives have received broad acceptance, the extent to which corrective measures have been implemented and are effective remains largely unknown. We used a survey approach, validated with empirical data, and enquiries to over 13,000 fisheries experts (of which 1,188 responded) to assess the current effectiveness of fisheries management regimes worldwide; for each of those regimes, we also calculated the probable sustainability of reported catches to determine how management affects fisheries sustainability. Our survey shows that 7% of all coastal states undergo rigorous scientific assessment for the generation of management policies, 1.4% also have a participatory and transparent processes to convert scientific recommendations into policy, and 0.95% also provide for robust mechanisms to ensure the compliance with regulations; none is also free of the effects of excess fishing capacity, subsidies, or access to foreign fishing. A comparison of fisheries management attributes with the sustainability of reported fisheries catches indicated that the conversion of scientific advice into policy, through a participatory and transparent process, is at the core of achieving fisheries sustainability, regardless of other attributes of the fisheries. Our results illustrate the great vulnerability of the world's fisheries and the urgent need to meet well-identified guidelines for sustainable management; they also provide a baseline against which future changes can be quantified.
- Sumaila, U.R. et al. Benefits of rebuilding global marine fisheries outweigh costs. PLoS ONE 7(7): art. e40542, 2012.
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Global marine fisheries are currently underperforming, largely due to overfishing. An analysis of global databases finds that resource rent net of subsidies from rebuilt world fisheries could increase from the current negative US$13 billion to positive US$54 billion per year, resulting in a net gain of US$600 to US$1,400 billion in present value over fifty years after rebuilding. To realize this gain, governments need to implement a rebuilding program at a cost of about US$203 (US$130–US$292) billion in present value. We estimate that it would take just 12 years after rebuilding begins for the benefits to surpass the cost. Even without accounting for the potential boost to recreational fisheries, and ignoring ancillary and non-market values that would likely increase, the potential benefits of rebuilding global fisheries far outweigh the costs.
- Worm, B. et al. Rebuilding global fisheries. Science 325(5940): 578-585, 2009.
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After a long history of overexploitation, increasing efforts to restore marine ecosystems and rebuild fisheries are under way. Here, we analyze current trends from a fisheries and conservation perspective. In 5 of 10 well-studied ecosystems, the average exploitation rate has recently declined and is now at or below the rate predicted to achieve maximum sustainable yield for seven systems. Yet 63% of assessed fish stocks worldwide still require rebuilding, and even lower exploitation rates are needed to reverse the collapse of vulnerable species. Combined fisheries and conservation objectives can be achieved by merging diverse management actions, including catch restrictions, gear modification, and closed areas, depending on local context. Impacts of international fleets and the lack of alternatives to fishing complicate prospects for rebuilding fisheries in many poorer regions, highlighting the need for a global perspective on rebuilding marine resources.
- Sumaila, U.R., Khan, A.S., Dyck, A.J., Watson, R., Munro, G., Tydemers, P., and Pauly, D. A bottom-up re-estimation of global fisheries subsidies. Journal of Bioeconomics 12(3): 201-225, 2010.
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Using a recently developed database of fisheries subsidies for 148 maritime countries spanning 1989 to the present, total fisheries subsidies for the year 2003 is computed. A key feature of our estimation approach is that it explicitly deals with missing data from official sources, and includes estimates of subsidies to developing country fisheries. Our analysis suggests that global fisheries subsidies for 2003 are between US$25 and 29 billion, which is higher than an earlier World Bank estimate of between US$ 14–20 billion. This new estimate is lower than our 2000 global subsidies estimate of US$ 30–34 billion. We find that fuel subsidies compose about 15–30% of total global fishing subsidies, and that capacity enhancing subsidies sum to US$ 16 billion or about 60% of the total. These results imply that the global community is paying the fishing industry billions each year to continue fishing even when it would not be profitable otherwise – effectively funding the over-exploitation of marine resources.
- Bromley, D.W. Abdicating responsibility: The deceits of fisheries policy. Fisheries 34(6): 280-290, 2009.
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The imperiled status of global fish stocks offers clear evidence of the comprehensive failure of national governments to provide coherent management to protect those stocks. The universal policy response to this failure seems to consist of nothing more imaginative than the free gifting to the commercial fishing sector of permanent endowments of income and wealth under the utopian claims associated with individual transferable quotas (ITQs). It now seems that the fishing industry is to be entrusted to become exemplary stewards, to become efficient, to maximize resource rent, to stop racing for fish, and to make society better off. These exultant promises are rendered false by the incoherent models from fisheries economics that are confused about the essential concepts of. 1. Efficiency; 2. Economic rent; 3. Resource rent; 4. Ricardian rent; 5. Average costs and average revenue among firms and across an industry; 6. Extra-normal profits; 7. Stewardship; 8. Property; 9. Rights; 10. Privileges; and 11. Property rights. This spurious and misguided embrace of ITQs can only compound the tragedies of past malfeasance by the dangerous endorsement of this bundle of confusions, contrivances, and deceits.
- Pitcher, T., Kalikoski, D., Pramod, G., and Short, K. Not honouring the code. Nature 457(7230): 658-659, 2009.
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A widely agreed remedy for overfishing, which has dramatically depleted fish populations in the world's oceans, would be to adopt the voluntary Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1995. The code provides a detailed consensus for the scientific, sustainable, responsible and equitable exploitation of fishery resources. Now, 13 years after its publication, a detailed evaluation for the 53 countries landing 96% of the global marine catch (based on reported catch in 1999) reveals dismayingly poor compliance. To improve matters, we suggest establishing mandatory instruments, either national or international, that echo the specific requirements for compliance with the code, and tailoring aid for developing countries to address specific weaknesses.
- Coulthard, S., Johnson, D., and McGregor, J.A. Poverty, sustainability and human wellbeing: A social wellbeing approach to the global fisheries crisis. Global Environmental Change 21(2): 453-463, 2011.
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The purpose of this paper is to explore the extent to which a social wellbeing approach can offer a useful way of addressing the policy challenge of reconciling poverty and environmental objectives for development policy makers. In order to provide detail from engagement with a specific policy challenge it takes as its illustrative example the global fisheries crisis. This crisis portends not only an environmental disaster but also a catastrophe for human development and for the millions of people directly dependent upon fish resources for their livelihoods and food security. The paper presents the argument for framing the policy problem using a social conception of human wellbeing, suggesting that this approach provides insights which have the potential to improve fisheries policy and governance. By broadening the scope of analysis to consider values, aspirations and motivations and by focusing on the wide range of social relationships that are integral to people achieving their wellbeing, it provides a basis for better understanding the competing interests in fisheries which generate conflict and which often undermine existing policy regimes.
- Pitcher, T.J. and Lam, M.E. Fishful thinking: Rhetoric, reality, and the sea before us. Ecology and Society 15(2): art. 12, 2010.
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Fisheries science and management have been shrouded in controversy and rhetoric for over 125 yrs. Human reliance on fish through history (and even prehistory) has impacted the sea and its resources. Global impacts are manifest today in threatened food security and vulnerable marine ecosystems. Growing consumer demand and subsidized industrial fisheries exacerbate ecosystem degradation, climate change, global inequities, and local poverty. Ten commonly advocated fisheries management solutions, if implemented alone, cannot remedy a history of intense fishing and serial stock depletions. Fisheries policy strategies evaluated along five performance modalities (ecological, economic, social, ethical, and institutional) suggest that composite management strategies, such as ecosystem-based management and historically based restoration, can do better. A scientifically motivated solution to the fisheries problem can be found in the restorable elements of past ecosystems, if some of our present ideology, practices, and tastes can be relinquished for this historical imperative. Food and social security can be enhanced using a composite strategy that targets traditional food sources and implements customary management practices. Without binding laws, however, instituting such an ethically motivated goal for fisheries policy can easily be compromised by global market pressures. In a restored and productive ecosystem, fishing is clearly the privilege of a few. The realities of imminent global food insecurity, however, may dictate a strategy to deliberately fish down the food web, if the basic human right to food is to be preserved for all
- Lam, M.E. and Pauly, D. Who is right to fish? Evolving a social contract for ethical fisheries. Ecology and Society 15(3): art. 16, 2010.
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Most debates on government fisheries management, focusing on dramatic fishery collapses, have skirted the ethical dimension implicit in the exploitation, for private gain, of fishery resources that are publicly owned. The privilege to fish, a conditional right often nefariously perceived as a legislated ''right,'' implies ethical responsibilities linked to marine stewardship. To date, however, granting this privilege to fish has not been legally tethered to the fiduciary responsibilities of businesses to their clients or governments to their citizens: sustainable management of fisheries and conservation of living marine resources. Legal rights must be coupled with moral responsibilities if governments, private fishing enterprises, and civil society are to conserve marine resources for present and future generations. Evolving a social contract for ethical fisheries that explicitly mandates collaborative governance and corporate responsibility can protect public goods and society's right to fish, both to eat and to exist in the sea.
- Bundy, A., Chuenpagdee, R., Jentoft, S., and Mahon, R. If science is not the answer, what is? An alternative governance model for the world's fisheries. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6(3): 152-155, 2008.
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Worldwide, management of fisheries has repeatedly failed, despite substantial investment in scientific research, primarily in the natural sciences. We argue that the way in which ecosystems are viewed and the lack of explicit consideration of three key elements - corporate responsibility, social justice, and ethics have contributed to this dismal history. Here, we turn classical ecosystem thinking on its head, proposing an alternative image of an ''inverted trophic pyramid'' that places humans at the bottom. The inverted pyramid encapsulates ecosystem-based management and the interdependent relationship between humans and the ecosystem. It requires business incentives, ethics, and a balance of power to prevent the pyramid from toppling and to avert a crisis.
- Allison, E.H., Ratner, B.D., Åsgård, B., Willmann, R., Pomeroy, R., and Kurien, J. Rights-based fisheries governance: from fishing rights to human rights. Fish and Fisheries 13(1): 14-29, 2012.
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In the last twenty years, policy prescriptions for addressing the global crisis in fisheries have centred on strengthening fisheries governance through clarifying exclusive individual or community rights of access to fishery resources. With a focus on small-scale developing-country fisheries in particular, we argue that basing the case for fishery governance reform on assumed economic incentives for resource stewardship is insufficient when there are other sources of insecurity in people's lives that are unrelated to the state of fishery resources. We argue that more secure, less vulnerable fishers make more effective and motivated fishery managers in the context of participatory or rights-based fisheries governance, and we further suggest that insecurity among fishers living in poverty can be most effectively addressed by social and political development that invokes the existing legal framework supporting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This perspective goes well beyond the widely advocated notion of 'rights-based fishing' and aligns what fishery sector analysts call the 'rights-based approach' with the same terminology used in the context of international development. Embedding the fisheries governance challenge within a broader perspective of human rights enhances the chances of achieving both human development and resource sustainability outcomes in small-scale fisheries of developing countries.
- Melnychuk, M.C., Essington, T.E., Branch, T.A., Heppell, S.S., Jensen, O.P., Link, J.S., Martell, S.J.D., Parma, A.M., Pope, J.G., and Smith, A.D.M. Can catch share fisheries better track management targets? Fish and Fisheries 13(3): 267-290, 2012.
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Fisheries management based on catch shares – divisions of annual fleet-wide quotas among individuals or groups – has been strongly supported for their economic benefits, but biological consequences have not been rigorously quantified. We used a global meta-analysis of 345 stocks to assess whether fisheries under catch shares were more likely to track management targets set for sustainable harvest than fisheries managed only by fleet-wide quota caps or effort controls. We examined three ratios: catch-to-quota, current exploitation rate to target exploitation rate and current biomass to target biomass. For each, we calculated the mean response, variation around the target and the frequency of undesirable outcomes with respect to these targets. Regional effects were stronger than any other explanatory variable we examined. After accounting for region, we found the effects of catch shares primarily on catch-to-quota ratios: these ratios were less variable over time than in other fisheries. Over-exploitation occurred in only 9% of stocks under catch shares compared to 13% of stocks under fleet-wide quota caps. Additionally, over-exploitation occurred in 41% of stocks under effort controls, suggesting a substantial benefit of quota caps alone. In contrast, there was no evidence for a response in the biomass of exploited populations because of either fleet-wide quota caps or individual catch shares. Thus, for many fisheries, management controls improve under catch shares in terms of reduced variation in catch around quota targets, but ecological benefits in terms of increased biomass may not be realized by catch shares alone.
- Costello, C., Lynham, J., Lester, S. E., and Gaines, S.D. Economic incentives and global fisheries sustainability. Annual Review of Resource Economics 2: 299-318, 2010.
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Widespread global collapses of fisheries corroborate decades-old predictions by economists, made long before large-scale industrialization of the world's fisheries, that open access would have deleterious ecological and economic effects on fishery resources. Incentive-based alternatives (collectively called catch shares) have been shown to generate pecuniary benefits, but little empirical evidence exists for, or against, a link to global fisheries sustainability. We report and expand on an analysis of >11,000 fisheries worldwide, in which we investigated the causes of fisheries collapse from 1950 to 2003. Using a program evaluation design, we found that catch shares prevent and, in some specifications, reverse fisheries collapse. Subsequent scientific studies reinforce and challenge these findings, suggesting fruitful avenues for future research linking incentive-based resource management to sustainability.
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