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Socio-Ecological Systems: Citizen Science to Participatory Research

• Chapin, F.S. et al.  Earth Stewardship: science for action to sustain the human-earth system.  Ecosphere 2(8): art. 84, 2011.
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  Human activities affect Earth's life support systems so profoundly as to threaten many of the ecological services that are essential to society. To address this challenge, a new science agenda is needed that integrates people with the rest of nature to help chart a more sustainable trajectory for the relationship between society and the biosphere. This paper describes Earth Stewardship, an initiative of the Ecological Society of America to provide the scientific basis for actively shaping trajectories of social-ecological change to enhance ecosystem resilience and human well-being. Principles for moving toward these goals include simultaneous attention to multiple scales and issues; consideration of both ecological and socioeconomic consequences; alignment of incentives with stewardship behavior; strengthening peoples' connections to valued places; and using demographic transitions as new opportunities for stewardship. Past experience provides guidelines for fostering Earth Stewardship. Early attention to sustainable pathways before problems emerge generally provides more cost-effective solutions than attempting to remediate entrenched problems. Defining sustainable pathways by assessing tradeoffs among alternative options requires careful attention to fine-scale processes, interactions, and feedbacks and to larger-scale controls and constraints. Many opportunities occur locally, through development of practices that match the properties of resources with the needs of their users. Substantial challenges remain at larger scales, including maintaining the diversity, productive capacity, and resilience of nature, which are essential for long-term human welfare. The knowledge needed to inform stewardship requires an interdisciplinary science that draws on the observations, skills, and creativity of a wide range of natural and social scientists, practitioners, and civil society. New questions and solutions will emerge when these groups work together to formulate the issues, design the research, and co-produce the observations, knowledge, and concepts that form the basis for solutions. The goal of Earth Stewardship is not to protect nature from people; rather it is to protect nature for human welfare.

• Smith, K.  An army of observers.  Nature Climate Change 1(2): 79-82, 2011.
  
• Kostadinova, I.  Citizen science – the new helping hand for scientists.  Current Science 100(7): 973-976, 2011.
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• Mahoney, A.R., Gearheard, S., Oshima, T., and Qillaq, T.  Sea ice thickness measurements from a community-based observing network.  Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 90(3): 370-377, 2011.
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• Bramanti, L., Vielmini, I., Rossi, S., , Stolfa S., and Santangelo, G.  Involvement of recreational scuba divers in emblematic species monitoring: The case of Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum).  Journal for Nature Conservation 19(5): 312-318, 2011.
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  Large-scale monitoring programs are fundamental for the management of overexploited or endangered species. When resources are limited, volunteer data collection is an alternative for researchers needing a large amount of data covering a wide geographic extension. Corallium rubrum is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. Some coastal populations have been deeply studied although there is still lack of knowledge about the distribution or even its presence along Italian coasts. The present work represents cooperation between University of Pisa and SSI-Italy. Recreational scuba divers have been involved in a monitoring project which aims to acquire data on Italian red coral shallow-water populations and increase the awareness of such an emblematic and patrimonial species. During summer 2008 a questionnaire was distributed to recreational divers. The 616 questionnaires analysed, covering more than 1600 km of coasts and 390 h of diving, showed an awareness of recreational divers towards red coral; 80% planned their dive aiming to find red coral and 4% reported colony damage. The same methodology applied in other countries could provide useful and comparable data on this precious marine species.

• Torkar, G. and McGregor, S.L.T.  Reframing the conception of nature conservation management by transdisciplinary methodology: From stakeholders to stakesharers.  Journal for Nature Conservation 20(2): 65-71, 2012.
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  Nature conservation is concerned with human-nature interface problems. The aim of this article is to examine how the transdisciplinary methodology can help improve community-based conservation approaches. Transdisciplinarity is an extremely promising global movement that promotes a new approach to the creation of human knowledge. It includes dialogue among the natural sciences, social sciences and humanities as well as with civil society, where the problems of the world are lived out on a daily basis. The intent of taking down the walls between the disciplines and civil society is to enable new types of knowledge to emerge through complex and integrated, mutually learned insights. The four pillars (axioms) of the transdisciplinary methodology – multiple levels of Reality (ontology), the logic of the included middle, emergent complexity (epistemology) and integral value constellations (axiology) – are explained as is the role each plays in reframing our conception of the conservation of nature. A transdisciplinary methodology helps everyone involved in a community-based conservational approach feel as if they are stakesharers rather than stakeholders. Almost everyone is familiar with the term stakeholder, referring to someone who can affect, or can be affected by others', decisions. To have a stake in something means people share or have an involvement in it. We coined the term stakesharer to reflect the idea that, within transdisciplinary work, people share ideas, solutions, threats and opportunities as they try to stake out their collective response to human-nature interface problems.

• Satterthwaite, D.  Why is community action needed for disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation?  Environment and Urbanization 23(2): 339-349, 2011.
  
• Trickett, E.J., Beehler, S., Deutsch, C., Green, L.W., Hawe, P., McLeroy, K., Miller, R.L., Rapkin, B.D., Schensul, J.J., Schulz, A.J., and Trimble, J.E.  Advancing the science of community-level interventions.  American Journal of Public Health 101(8): 1410-1419, 2011.
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  Community interventions are complex social processes that need to move beyond single interventions and outcomes at individual levels of short-term change. A scientific paradigm is emerging that supports collaborative, multilevel, culturally situated community interventions aimed at creating sustainable community-level impact. This paradigm is rooted in a deep history of ecological and collaborative thinking across public health, psychology, anthropology, and other fields of social science. The new paradigm makes a number of primary assertions that affect conceptualization of health issues, intervention design, and intervention evaluation. To elaborate the paradigm and advance the science of community intervention, we offer suggestions for promoting a scientific agenda, developing collaborations among professionals and communities, and examining the culture of science.

• Evely, A.C., Pinard, M., Reed, M.S., and Fazey, I.  High levels of participation in conservation projects enhance learning.  Conservation Letters 4(2): 116-126, 2011.
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  Participatory approaches are often suggested to increase sustainability and adaptability of conservation programs because they are assumed to build capacity of participants to learn and manage projects. This article compares participatory projects with different styles of management to determine whether increasing the extent or quality of engagement of participants affects the degree to which they learn. The results show that: (1) Participants in all projects learnt something, but the extent of learning was overall highest for projects with greatest engagement; (2) the length of time participants were involved in a project did not influence how much they learned; and (3) a range of factors relating to engagement influenced learning outcomes. The results suggest that if capacity building is a desired outcome of participation, then it pays to invest in high levels of engagement right from the outset. More research to help understand the processes involved in enhancing learning is required.

• Gearheard, S., Aporta, C., Aipellee, G., and O'Keefe, K.  The Igliniit project: Inuit hunters document life on the trail to map and monitor arctic change.  Canadian Geographer 55(1): 42-55, 2011.
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  The Igliniit Project brought together Inuit hunters and geomatics engineering students during the International Polar Year (IPY) to collaborate on the development and testing of a new integrated GPS/PDA/mobile weather station technology for observing and monitoring the environment. Part of the larger Inuit Sea Ice Use and Occupancy Project (ISIUOP), the Igliniit Project culminated in a tangible product that is the direct result of combined scientific and Inuit knowledge, ingenuity, and engineering. This paper describes the Igliniit Project and examines the resulting technology as (i) an artifact of Inuit knowledge, science and engineering collaboration; (ii) a tool for meaningful engagement of Inuit in environmental science and community-based monitoring; (iii) a new approach and tool in the field of indigenous mapping; and (iv) an example of one technology in the expanding ecology of technologies in everyday Inuit life. The technology requires improvements in hardware and further development of supporting systems such as data management and mapping capability, but there is potential for the Igliniit Project approach and system to have wide appeal across the North for a variety of applications including environmental monitoring, wildlife studies, land use mapping, hazards research, place names research, archaeological and cultural inventories, and search and rescue operations.

• Huntington, H.P., Gearheard, S., Mahoney, A.R., and Salomon, A.K.  Integrating traditional and scientific knowledge through collaborative natural science field research: Identifying elements for success.  Arctic 64(4): 437-445, 2011.
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  We discuss two recent projects to examine the role of collaborative environmental fieldwork both in research and in the interactions between academically trained researchers and experienced local residents. The Bidarki Project studied black leather chitons (Katharina tunicata) in the lower Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Its conclusion that chiton declines are part of a serial decline of intertidal invertebrates drew on collaborative fieldwork, archaeological data, historical records, and interviews with local residents. The Siku-Inuit-Hila Project studied sea ice in Barrow, Alaska; Clyde River, Nunavut; and Qaanaaq, Greenland. Quantitative data from locally maintained observation sites were supplemented by knowledge exchanges among hunters from the communities and by discussion in local working groups to develop an understanding of the physical dynamics and human uses of sea ice at each locale. We conclude that careful planning and preparation, along with the effort to build strong personal relationships, can increase the likelihood that collaborative fieldwork will be productive, enjoyable, and rewarding.

• Higdon, J.W. and Ferguson, S.H.  Reports of humpback and minke whales in the Hudson Bay region, eastern Canadian Arctic.  Northeastern Naturalist 18(3): 370-377, 2011.
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  We summarize recently reported sightings of Megaptera novaeangliae (Humpback Whales) and Balaenoptera acuturostrata (Minke Whales) in the Hudson Bay region, in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Balaena mysticetus (Bowhead Whale) is the only baleen whale historically known from Hudson Bay, and during the commercial whaling era (1860–1915), no other large whale was reported to occur there. We note recent (ca. last 10 years) Humpback observations reported by local Inuit hunters in Hudson Bay and northern Foxe Basin. One Humpback was also observed by cetacean biologists in Ungava Bay during an aerial survey for Delphinapterus leucas (Beluga Whales). Minke Whales have previously been reported in southern Hudson Bay and James Bay, and recent discussions with Inuit hunters have indicated possible sightings in Foxe Basin and western Hudson Bay. They are commonly observed by Inuit in eastern Hudson Strait, where there have also been recent detections by biologists. Observations of these species in Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin may be related to reduced ice cover and increased open water, changes in prey species distributions, population recovery and growth following commercial whaling, or some combination of factors. More efficient reporting of observations is needed, and improved community-level monitoring would assist with documentation of temperate-region species in high-latitude areas.

• Rajamani, L. and Marsh, H.  Using parallel regional- and local-scale initiatives to inform conservation management of rare wildlife: a case study of the dugong Dugong dugon in Sabah, Malaysia.  Endangered Species Research 13(1): 17-23, 2011.
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  Obtaining the information needed to inform management strategies for rare wildlife species at appropriate scales is costly and logistically demanding. Using coastal aerial surveys we obtained qualitative information on the distribution and abundance of the dugong Dugong dugon at the geopolitical scale of the state of Sabah in east Malaysia. At a local scale, interview surveys and a monitoring program were carried out at 2 sites: Mantanani Island and Banggi Island. A total of 53 dugongs were observed from the air, concentrated around Labuan Island –Brunei Bay and Sandakan Bay. The interview reports and monitoring program indicated that the residents of Mantanani Island and Banggi Island had local knowledge of the distribution and abundance of dugongs and, thus, an ability to participate in monitoring at that scale. Dugong populations in Sabah are small and clumped, and urgently require management intervention at local scales in the regionally important habitats identified by the aerial surveys. This combination of regional- and local-scale initiatives has a more generic application in the monitoring of other rare species of wildlife.

• Maynou, F., Sbrana, M., Sartor, P., Maravelias, C., Kavadas, S., Damalas, D., Cartes, J.E., and Osio, G.  Estimating trends of population decline in long-lived marine species in the Mediterranean Sea based on fishers' perceptions.  PLoS ONE 6(7): art. e21818, 2011.
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  We conducted interviews of a representative sample of 106 retired fishers in Italy, Spain and Greece, asking specific questions about the trends they perceived in dolphin and shark abundances between 1940 and 1999 (in three 20 year periods) compared to the present abundance. The large marine fauna studied were not target species of the commercial fleet segment interviewed (trawl fishery). The fishers were asked to rank the perceived abundance in each period into qualitative ordinal classes based on two indicators: frequency of sightings and frequency of catches (incidental or intentional) of each taxonomic group. The statistical analysis of the survey results showed that both incidental catches and the sighting frequency of dolphins have decreased significantly over the 60+ years of the study period (except for in Greece due to the recent population increase). This shows that fishers' perceptions are in agreement with the declining population trends detected by scientists. Shark catches were also perceived to have diminished since the early 1940s for all species. Other long-lived Mediterranean marine fauna (monk seals, whales) were at very low levels in the second half of the 20th century and no quantitative data could be obtained. Our study supports the results obtained in the Mediterranean and other seas that show the rapid disappearance (over a few decades) of marine fauna. We show that appropriately designed questionnaires help provide a picture of animal abundance in the past through the valuable perceptions of fishers. This information can be used to complement scientific sources or in some cases be taken as the only information source for establishing population trends in the abundance of sensitive species.

• Azzurro, E., Moschella, P., and Maynou, F.  Tracking signals of change in Mediterranean fish diversity based on local ecological knowledge.  PLoS ONE 6(9): art. e24885, 2011.
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  One of the expected effects of global change is increased variability in the abundance and distribution of living organisms, but information at the appropriate temporal and geographical scales is often lacking to observe these patterns. Here we use local knowledge as an alternative information source to study some emerging changes in Mediterranean fish diversity. A pilot study of thirty-two fishermen was conducted in 2009 from four Mediterranean locations along a south-north gradient. Semi-quantitative survey information on changes in species abundance was recorded by year and suggests that 59 fish species belonging to 35 families have experienced changes in their abundance. We distinguished species that increased from species that decreased or fluctuated. Multivariate analysis revealed significant differences between these three groups of species, as well as significant variation between the study locations. A trend for thermophilic taxa to increase was recorded at all the study locations. The Carangidae and the Sphyraenidae families typically were found to increase over time, while Scombridae and Clupeidae were generally identified as decreasing and Fistularidae and Scaridae appeared to fluctuate in abundance. Our initial findings strongly suggest the northward expansion of thermophilic species whose occurrence in the northern Mediterranean has only been noted previously by occasional records in the scientific literature.

• Ward-Paige, C.A. and Lotze, H.K.  Assessing the value of recreational divers for censusing elasmobranchs.  PLoS ONE 6(10): art. e25609, 2011.
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  Background  Around the world, researchers are using the observations and experiences of citizens to describe patterns in animal populations. This data is often collected via ongoing sampling or by synthesizing past experiences. Since elasmobranchs are relatively rare, obtaining data for broad-scale trend analysis requires high sampling effort. Elasmobranchs are also relatively large and conspicuous and therefore it may be possible to enlist recreational divers to collect data on their occurrence and relative abundance from daily dive activities. For this, however, a good understanding of the value of data collected by recreational divers is essential.  Methodology/Principal Findings  Here, we explore the value of recreational divers for censusing elasmobranchs using a diverse set of data sources. First, we use a simulation experiment to explore detection rates of the roving diver technique, used by recreational divers, across a range of fish densities and speeds. Next, using a field survey, we show that inexperienced recreational divers detect and count elasmobranchs as well as experienced recreational divers. Finally, we use semi-structured interviews of recreational dive instructors to demonstrate the value of their recollections in terms of effort and their descriptions of spatial and temporal distributions of sharks in Thailand.  Conclusions/Significance  Overall, this study provides initial ground-work for using recreational divers for monitoring elasmobranch populations. If used appropriately, citizen-collected data may provide additional information that can be used to complement more standardized surveys and to describe population trends across a range of spatial and temporal scales. Due to the non-extractive nature of this data, recreational divers may also provide important insight into the success of conservation initiatives, such as shark sanctuaries and no-take zones.

• Mackinson, S., Wilson, D.C., Galiay, P., and Deas, B.  Engaging stakeholders in fisheries and marine research.  Marine Policy 35(1): 18-24, 2011.
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  Despite knowledge-brokering being of high interest to public policy, there is a lack of research integrating the knowledge of stakeholders and scientists, principally because public policies remain viewed as top-down controlled. To help European research policies make a positive difference to society, there is a need to better engage stakeholders with the delivery of research and to demonstrate an impact and value that it brings. The pertinent question addressed by this communication is: how can a deeper and more systematic engagement of stakeholders be enabled through European research activities? Enabling stakeholder participation in European research activities requires there to be an incentive for researchers and stakeholders to engage, and the capacity of stakeholders to operate effectively in the research framework. Unsurprisingly, the establishment of communications and cultures conducive to shared problem solving is high priority, as is the need to work towards a governance structure that helps link research with policy outcomes, while at the same time resonating directly with stakeholders. The Regional Advisory Councils could be a strong force in bringing stakeholders knowledge to bear on the scientific issues relevant to management, but their strategy and capacity to mobilise the skills to do so are not yet ready.

• Lovecraft, A.L. and Meek, C.L.  The human dimensions of marine mammal management in a time of rapid change: comparing policies in Canada, Finland and the United States.  Marine Policy 35(4): 427-429, 2011.
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  Arctic coastal populations share a close relationship with their environment consisting of linkages among communities, landscapes and seascapes, and the social institutions developed to sustain the system. This cultural-biogeophysical dynamic is termed throughout the section as a social-ecological system (SES). Marine mammals constitute a large portion of the subsistence diet for these communities, and as such represent key ecological services provided by the system. At the same time, marine mammals have gained iconic status as symbols for climate change in the North. A tension results between the demands of balancing on one hand good policy optics consistent with national and international norms and, on the other hand, flexible and adaptive institutions able to take on the task of managing resources in a dynamic, changing North. This tension and associated policy solutions such as co-management are explored in a series of papers focusing on marine mammal management dilemmas and policy practices around the circumpolar North. This introduction communicates the problem context and describes the five papers making up this special section. A guiding premise to this work is that new international pressures to implement moratoria on marine mammal hunting in the North ignore critical human dimensions of marine mammal management. Such policy proposals are unlikely to succeed in areas that require collaboration across scales. Simultaneously, new local-scale participation in multi-level management regimes holds promise for creating more resilient marine mammal SESs.

• Dale, A. and Armitage, D.  Marine mammal co-management in Canada's Arctic: Knowledge co-production for learning and adaptive capacity.  Marine Policy 35(4): 440-449, 2011.
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  This paper examines the challenge of knowledge co-production and the implications for learning and adapting in the context of a narwhal co-management in Nunavut, Canada. Knowledge co-production is the collaborative process of bringing a plurality of knowledge sources and types together to address a defined problem and build an integrated or systems-oriented understanding of that problem. The paper considers knowledge co-production by examining five interrelated dimensions: knowledge gathering, sharing, integration, interpretation, and application. Voices of hunters, community representatives, and managers engaged in co-management are highlighted to identify primary challenges and opportunities. The analysis reveals how compartmentalized views of knowledge continue to constrain adaptive and collaborative management. An understanding of knowledge co-production processes, however, may help to overcome the resilience of top-down management approaches.

• Biggs, C.R. and Olden, J.D.  Multi-scale habitat occupancy of invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) in coral reef environments of Roatan, Honduras.  Aquatic Invasions 6(3): 347-353, 2011.
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  The Indo-Pacific lionfish species [Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) and P. miles (Bennett, 1828): Family Scorpaenidae] are the first non-native marine fishes to establish in the Western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea. Despite the continued documentation of its range expansion and highly publicized invasion (including public-driven removal efforts) there remains a paucity of basic information on lionfish ecology. This knowledge gap limits effective long-term management. In this study we conducted a multi-scale investigation of habitat occupancy of a newly established population of lionfish in Roatan, Honduras. Based on field surveys and citizen sightings in Roatan Marine Park we found that lionfish occurred more frequently on aggregate coral reef habitats (54% of sightings) compared to patch reef habitats (30%) and sea grass lagoons (16%). In general, these aggregate and patch reef habitats contained adults (mean total length = 118.9 mm and 114.7 mm, respectively) whereas sea grass habitats contained juveniles (mean total length = 89.5 mm). At the micro-habitat scale lionfish occupied areas dominated by hard coral and overhanging structure; the same microhabitats containing native fishes of concern – grouper (Nassau grouper, Epinephelus striatus; yellow fin grouper, Mycteroperca venenosa) and snapper (dog snapper, Lutjanus jocu; mutton snapper, Lutjanus analis). Results from this study contribute information on basic habitat requirements of lionfish and inform current management removal efforts focused on containing spread and mitigating their impacts on native species.

• Cohen, C.S., McCann, L., Davis, T., Shaw, L., and Ruiz, G.  Discovery and significance of the colonial tunicate Didemnum vexillum in Alaska.  Aquatic Invasions 6(3): 263-271, 2011.
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  The colonial tunicate, Didemnum vexillum Kott, 2002, has a history of invading and overgrowing marine communities in temperate waters worldwide. The species can colonize and dominate remarkably large areas of benthic habitat, including coastal bays and outer coastal areas, causing concerns about potential long-term effects on community structure, critical habitats, and fisheries resources. We report here the confirmed occurrence of D. vexillum in Alaska, representing a dramatic 1000 km northward extension of this non-native species along the western coast of North America. The species was detected as part of a "bioblitz", engaging citizen scientists to survey local biota and detect non-native marine species incursions. Following detection, the identity of D. vexillum was confirmed with robust genetic methods, and morphological characters were also consistent with previous species descriptions. Although invasions have been relatively rare in Alaskan waters to date, it is now clear that D. vexillum is established in at least one site (Whiting Harbor) near Sitka, Alaska. Given the explosive growth and spread of this species in other global regions, and its potential for significant impacts across diverse habitats in Alaska, current efforts are underway to evaluate its distribution and options to eradicate or control the species.

• Scholz, A.J., Steinback, C., Kruse, S.A., Mertens, M., and Silverman, H.  Incorporation of spatial and economic analyses of human-use data in the design of marine protected areas.  Conservation Biology 25(3): 485-492, 2011.
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  Social, economic, and ecological criteria contribute to the successful design, implementation, and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). In the context of California's Marine Life Protection Act Initiative, we developed a set of methods for collecting, compiling, and analyzing data about the spatial extent and relative economic importance of commercial and recreational fishing. We interviewed 174 commercial fishers who represented the major fisheries in the initiative's north-central coast region, which extends from Point Arena south to Pigeon Point. These fishers provided data that we used to map the extent of each of the fishing grounds, to weight the relative importance of areas within the grounds, to characterize the operating costs of each fishery, and to analyze the potential economic losses associated with proposed marine protected areas. A regional stakeholder group used the maps and impact analyses in conjunction with other data sets to iteratively identify economic and ecological trade-offs in designations of different areas as MPAs at regional, port, and fishery extents. Their final proposed MPA network designated 20% of state waters as MPAs. Potential net economic loss ranged from 1.7% to 14.2% in the first round of network design and totaled 6.3% in the final round of design. This process is a case study in the application of spatial analysis to validate and integrate local stakeholder knowledge in marine planning.

• Lauber, T.B., Stedman, R.C., Decker, D.J., and Knuth, B.A.  Linking knowledge to action in collaborative conservation.  Conservation Biology 25(6): 1186-1194, 2011.
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  Authors have documented a 'research-implementation gap' in conservation. Research intended to inform conservation practice often does not, and practice often is not informed by the best science. We used the literature on policy learning (i.e., literature attributing policy change to learning) to structure a study of how practice is informed by science in collaborative conservation. We studied implementation by U.S. states of state wildlife action plans. On the basis of 60 interviews with government and nongovernmental organization representatives, we identified 144 implementation initiatives for State Wildlife Action Plans that were collaborative. We conducted case studies of 6 of these initiatives, which included interviews of key individuals and analysis of written documents. We coded interview transcripts and written documents to identify factors that influence availability and use of scientific information. We integrated these factors into a model of collaborative conservation. Although tangible factors such as funding and labor directly affected the availability of scientific information, practitioners' ability and willingness to use the information depended on less tangible factors such as the quality of interpersonal relationships and dialogue. Our work demonstrates empirically that relationships and dialogue led to: (1) the sharing of resources, such as funding and labor, that were needed to carry out research and produce information and (2) agreement among researchers and practitioners on conservation objectives, which was necessary for that new information to inform action. Our findings can be understood in the context of broader concepts articulated in the policy-learning literature, which establishes that social learning (improving relationships and dialogue) provides the foundation for conceptual learning (setting objectives) and technical learning (determining how to achieve these objectives).

• Carruthers, E.H. and Neis, B.  Bycatch mitigation in context: Using qualitative interview data to improve assessment and mitigation in a data-rich fishery.  Biological Conservation 144(9): 2289-2299, 2011.
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  Bycatch from pelagic longline fisheries has contributed to widespread population declines of turtles, sharks and other pelagic fishes. While large-scale estimates are needed to understand cumulative impacts on these highly migratory species, detailed information on targeting, setting, and discarding practices is needed to develop bycatch mitigation approaches. Data from qualitative fishers' knowledge interviews with Canadian Atlantic pelagic longline captains was used to evaluate current bycatch estimation methods and to identify bycatch mitigation opportunities. Interviewed longline captains reported blue sharks (Prionace glauca) were common bycatch during swordfish-targeted sets, but were sometimes absent from tuna-targeted sets. Discrepancies between longline captains' observations and bycatch assessment methods identified needed improvements to data collection methods. Longline captains reported innovative uses of turtle dehooking gear, which two-thirds of interviewed captains had used to release other bycatch species in addition to turtles. Longline captains reported techniques for discarding pelagic stingray (Pteroplatytrygon violacea), a common bycatch species in Pacific, Atlantic and Mediterranean pelagic longline fisheries. Therefore, such techniques could decrease fisheries impacts globally. While there can be major conservation benefits from fishers' knowledge research, one-quarter of the active longline captains that we contacted declined interviews because they did not trust the larger research process. We urge conservation biologists to carefully design fishers' knowledge research taking into account the often politicized context. Failure to do so may jeopardize future research and conservation efforts.

• Taylor, R.B., Morrison, M.A., and Shears, N.T.  Establishing baselines for recovery in a marine reserve (Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand) using local ecological knowledge.  Biological Conservation 144(12): 3038-3046, 2011.
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  Local ecological knowledge is a potentially valuable, but mostly untapped, resource for evaluating decadal-scale shifts in abundances of organisms. In this study, recollections of long-term divers were quantified to assess changes in underwater life at the Poor Knights Islands in temperate northeastern New Zealand from the 1960s to 2000s, in order to establish baselines for recovery since the islands were protected within a no-take marine reserve in late 1998. Data were validated against quantitative data from contemporary monitoring programmes (established in the late 1990s), with the divers conservative in that their reported changes were smaller than those from the scientific monitoring. The divers reported large (60-88%) and steady long-term declines in abundances of black corals (Lillipathes lilliei), tube sponges (Calyx imperialis), packhorse lobster (Sagmariasus verreauxi), and several large predatory fishes. There was little or no suggestion of recent recovery in these species following no-take protection. Only the sparid fish Pagrus auratus and sharks were considered to have substantially increased in numbers following no-take protection. Multivariate analysis of data derived from the divers' recollections detected no signs of recovery at the community-level, although full no-take protection appeared to have stopped further change along the major axis of variation. Our results highlight the value of local ecological knowledge for investigating decadal-scale changes in reef biota and for providing a longer-term context for evaluating the efficacy of marine reserves.

• Hamilton, R.J., Giningele, M., Aswani, S., and Ecochard, J.L.  Fishing in the dark – local knowledge, night spearfishing and spawning aggregations in the Western Solomon Islands.  Biological Conservation 145(1): 246-257, 2012.
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  Within the marine conservation community there is considerable interest in combining local knowledge and science to achieve management objectives. Yet there remain few studies which have examined the merits and caveats of local knowledge, or shown how combining both knowledge systems has resulted in better management outcomes. This study outlines collaborative efforts to conserve fish spawning aggregations (FSAs) in Roviana Lagoon, Western Solomon Islands. Baseline information on FSAs was obtained through local knowledge and spearfishing creel surveys. This information provided the starting point for establishing a 2-year community-based underwater monitoring program at the largest known FSA in Roviana Lagoon, where the brown-marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus), camouflage grouper (Epinephelus polyphekadion) and squaretail coralgrouper (Plectropomus areolatus) co-aggregate. This participatory research shows that local knowledge on FSAs is utilised to maximise returns from fishing, with spearfishermen targeting aggregations at night during the lunar periods when abundances peak. Because of its shallow distribution P. areolatus is the most vulnerable of the three groupers to nighttime spearfishing, with two fishermen capable of removing 15–30% of the total spawning biomass in two nights. Underwater monitoring demonstrates that while fishermen provided accurate information on many aspects of FSAs, their knowledge on spawning seasons was inaccurate for the FSA reported on here. Peak aggregations occurred from December to April each year, which differs from the traditionally recognised grouper season of October to January. A combination of local knowledge and science was used to develop appropriate management measures for this FSA, with the aggregation declared a community-based marine protected area (MPA) in 2006.

• Castellanos-Galindo, G.A., Cantera, J.R., Espinosa, S., and Mejia-Ladino, L.M.  Use of local ecological knowledge, scientist's observations and grey literature to assess marine species at risk in a tropical eastern Pacific estuary.  Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21(1): 37-48, 2011.
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  1. The loss of marine biodiversity in tropical regions of the world is a major threat to human welfare. Multiple anthropogenic drivers are responsible for this situation, with complex scenarios for coastal areas in third-world countries, where economic development often competes with conservation plans. 2. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is an influential tool for setting conservation priorities at local and regional levels. The application of IUCN criteria for assessing extinction risk, however, continues to represent a major challenge in data-poor situations present in many tropical megadiverse countries. 3. To overcome these difficulties, three different data sources on invertebrates and fishes present in an estuarine system representative of the tropical eastern Pacific (TEP) region (Bahia Malaga, Colombia) have been used to establish their relative local extinction risk and correlate this information with the existing IUCN Red List categories. Data sources included (1) IUCN global and national listings, (2) traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), and (3) grey literature, scientific and natural history observations. 4. In total, 46 threatened species were evaluated after combining the three data sources. Only 17 species were previously identified as threatened by IUCN global and national listings, whereas the remaining 29 species were classified under a threatened category after evaluating TEK, grey literature and scientific information. Some of these species are seriously threatened within the estuary because of overharvesting and habitat destruction. 5. Despite most of the species identified having large geographical ranges in the TEP, they may face the same threats throughout their ranges. The approach provides a useful tool to assess species extinction risk in tropical regions where resource exploitation and habitat degradation advance rapidly, making the setting of conservation priorities an urgent task.

• Teleki, K.A.  Power of the people?  Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 22(1): 1-6, 2012.
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• Shackeroff, J.M., Campbell, L.M., and Crowder, L.B.  Social-ecological guilds: Putting people into marine historical ecology.  Ecology and Society 16(1): art. 52, 2011.
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  Marine historical ecology provides historic insights into past ocean ecosystems that are crucial to effectively confronting the declining health and resilience in marine ecosystems. A more 'peopled' approach to marine historical ecology is necessary, given the heightened emphasis on human dimensions in marine management. This study examined the historical ecology of Hawaiian coral reef ecosystems through oral histories of diverse ocean experts, representing six traditional, local, and scientific knowledge systems. Based on 61 in-depth interviews with these ocean experts, historical trends, abundance, and distribution over 80 years and a 50-mile region for 271 species emerged. Analyzing trends by ecological guild, e.g., herbivores, proved inappropriate to these data; rather, based on qualitative analyses, five distinct trends encompassing nearly all species emerged in what we term ''social-ecological guilds.'' Ocean expert's observations of change were surprisingly consistent, regardless of their knowledge system, whereas perceptions of change varied widely. The historical picture was far broader and richer when the contributions of six knowledge systems were incorporated, compared to that of any one alone. Social-ecological guilds also matter critically from a management perspective, because understanding how experts from a multiplicity of perspectives observe, interpret, and respond to ecological change can help managers anticipate responses to management activities and perhaps to design better management strategies.

• Smith, T.A.  Local knowledge in development (geography).  Geography Compass 5(8): 595-609, 2011.
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  The use of local knowledge in and for development is a relatively recent phenomenon, entering the realm of development theory and practice from the mid-1970s, yet it has become a key part of the rhetoric and practice of development agencies and academic research. The conceptual and historical background to local knowledge in development, including its roots of 'Western' engagement with 'other' or 'indigenous' knowledges, is key to understanding their more contemporary application in development practice. As local knowledge has entered the development orthodoxy, so a more critical approach has emerged, with particularly important contributions from Geographers, as to the use, application, and conceptual understanding of how knowledges are interpreted and adopted within development. This critique has highlighted the dynamic, political, and spatial nature of such knowledge, and problematises the notion that they are fundamentally 'good' for local development. For Geographers, and those working in development studies, there remain important questions about local knowledge, including how such knowledges are constituted by relationships and networks that go beyond the local, how such knowledges are 'learnt' and (re)produced in time and space, and how the knowledges of still marginalised actors in local communities can be taken account of.

• Clucas, R.  Long-term population trends of Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus) revealed by hunt success.  Ecological Applications 21(4): 1308-1326, 2011.
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  The annual hunt of Muttonbirds (chicks of the Sooty Shearwater, Puffinus griseus), undertaken by the Rakiura Māori people of southern New Zealand, is economically and socially integral to their cultural identity. Muttonbirders concerned at ensuring that the hunt remains viable for coming generations have provided catch records to help ascertain historic trends in hunt success. Analysis of eight catch diaries for a 67-year period demonstrates considerable consistency across diaries in the variability of hunt success, as measured by annualized mean daily hunt tallies. A conservative estimate of the overall annual decline in hunt success is -1.89% (95% CI: -1.14% to -2.65%). Birders' observations of a changing relationship between chick quality and hunt success was evidenced across diaries. Reduced hunt success from the 1990s indicates that possible adult "knockdowns" and/or sustained substantial reductions in breeding proportions have occurred. Chick size has remained constant, suggesting little change in the provisioning environment. Catch per unit effort data, provided by a single diary, confirms a link between variability in annual hunt success and chick abundance. The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) are correlated with hunt success and chick size, respectively. Interannual PDO+ (or PDO-) values are correlated with higher (or lower) tallies, whereas SAM+ (or SAM-) values are associated with larger (or smaller) chick size. Uncertainty in the relationship between the breeding Sooty Shearwater population, chick catch, and environmental perturbation in their feeding grounds could be reduced with the inclusion of hunt time in all diary records. Ongoing prolonged decline in a top-trophic-level predator such as the Sooty Shearwater raises serious concern that long-term oceanic changes have been occurring and that long-term sustainability of muttonbirding is in doubt.

• Lauer, M. and Aswani, S.  Indigenous knowledge and long-term ecological change: Detection, interpretation, and responses to changing ecological conditions in Pacific Island communities.  Environmental Management 45(5): 985-997, 2010.
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  When local resource users detect, understand, and respond to environmental change they can more effectively manage environmental resources. This article assesses these abilities among artisanal fishers in Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands. In a comparison of two villages, it documents local resource users' abilities to monitor long-term ecological change occurring to seagrass meadows near their communities, their understandings of the drivers of change, and their conceptualizations of seagrass ecology. Local observations of ecological change are compared with historical aerial photography and IKONOS satellite images that show 56 years of actual changes in seagrass meadows from 1947 to 2003. Results suggest that villagers detect long-term changes in the spatial cover of rapidly expanding seagrass meadows. However, for seagrass meadows that showed no long-term expansion or contraction in spatial cover over one-third of respondents incorrectly assumed changes had occurred. Examples from a community-based management initiative designed around indigenous ecological knowledge and customary sea tenure governance show how local observations of ecological change shape marine resource use and practices which, in turn, can increase the management adaptability of indigenous or hybrid governance systems.

• Swapan, M.S.H. and Gavin, M.  A desert in the delta: Participatory assessment of changing livelihoods induced by commercial shrimp farming in Southwest Bangladesh.  Ocean and Coastal Management 54(1): 45-54, 2011.
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  In recent years, shrimp aquaculture, which is undertaken largely in the tropical countries, has experienced spectacular growth in response to expanding global demand and higher economic return. Shrimp exports bring substantial foreign exchange to the producing countries and also generate employment for various stakeholders related to this industry. Despite a number of positive aspects (e.g., foreign exchange, employment and food) of shrimp farming, the industry has serious negative environmental impacts. Because of the degradation of natural resources, commercial shrimp farming imposes socio-economic costs on rural resource-reliant communities as their traditional means of food production and livelihoods are displaced. Bangladesh produces 2.5 percent of the global production of shrimp. The country earned about 400 million dollars (U.S.) from shrimp exports during 2004–2005, up from only US$3.17 million in 1971–72. Bangladesh is suffering because of unplanned expansion of this aquaculture and increasingly called as "a desert in the delta". The purpose of this paper is to identify the impact of commercial saltwater shrimp farming on rural livelihood patterns in southwest Bangladesh using different Participatory Research methods. The authors suggest that vulnerabilities in livelihoods of the rural communities increased due to narrowing down agricultural production, income sources and natural supply of food. Other socio-economic impacts (e.g., landuse patterns, homestead and family structure, daily movement pattern and activities, drinking water, and law and order) also followed as a reaction to the changing ecological conditions. It is also found that economic benefits from shrimp cultivation to the communities was minimal or even negative due to the polarization and outflow of profits, which is augmenting the threat of poverty.

• Senko, J., Schneller, A.J., Solis, J., Ollervides, F., and Nichols, W.J.  People helping turtles, turtles helping people: Understanding resident attitudes towards sea turtle conservation and opportunities for enhanced community participation in Bahia Magdalena, Mexico.  Ocean and Coastal Management 54(2): 148-157, 2011.
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  In Pacific Mexico, all five sea turtle species have declined over the past century due to intense overexploitation of meat and eggs, fisheries bycatch, and degradation of marine and nesting habitats. One of the most heavily impacted areas has been the Baja California peninsula, where sea turtle populations remain historically low despite existing conservation measures that include a complete moratorium on the use of sea turtles, over three decades of widespread protection of nesting beaches, and in-water monitoring of sea turtles at coastal foraging areas. We recognize the need for alternative sea turtle conservation strategies that rely on increased participation of civil society and Mexican citizens. The purpose of this paper was to identify resident attitudes towards sea turtle conservation and opportunities for enhanced community participation in Bahia Magdalena, a region in Baja California Sur, Mexico experiencing high levels of sea turtle poaching and bycatch in fisheries. Through semi-structured interviews we found that while residents were overwhelmingly interested in participating in sea turtle conservation, peer pressure and conflict within the community presented major challenges. The majority of residents indicated that sea turtle voluntourism would have a positive impact on their community. Economic incentives and increased protection for sea turtles were mentioned as benefits of sea turtle voluntourism, whereas peer pressure, difficulty obtaining permits and producing effective marketing materials, and doubt about direct economic benefits were cited as constraints. We discuss our results in terms of opportunities, challenges, and recommendations for improving community-focused sea turtle conservation throughout the region.

• Hermans, F.L.P., Haarmann, W.M.F., and Dagevos, J.F.  Evaluation of stakeholder participation in monitoring regional sustainable development.  Regional Environmental Change 11(4): 805-815, 2011.
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  This paper presents a theoretical framework that can be used to discuss the question of how context, time and different participatory process designs influence the results of participatory monitoring projects in terms of concrete outputs (such as sustainability indicators) and the more intangible social outcomes (such as learning and stakeholder relations). We will discuss and compare four different cases of participatory monitoring of provincial sustainable development in the Netherlands. The results show sustainability issues selected by the stakeholders reflect the socio-economic and ecological structural characteristics of their region. In a different context, stakeholders not only assign different weights to the same set of issues, but more importantly they select a completely different set of regional aims altogether. Since these regional structural characteristics only change slowly over time, the influence of time on stakeholder preferences is shown to be only of minor importance. However, the dissipation of learning effects is shown to be a fundamental challenge for the cyclical nature of participatory monitoring, especially when its goal is shared agenda building. Another important conclusion is that, in the design of participatory processes, more attention should be devoted to providing stakeholders with the opportunity to comment on an 'intermediate' product.

• Armitage, D., Berkes, F., Dale, A., Kocho-Schellenberg, E., and Patton, E.  Co-management and the co-production of knowledge: Learning to adapt in Canada's Arctic.  Global Environmental Change 21(3): 995-1004, 2011.
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  Co-management institutional arrangements have an important role in creating conditions for social learning and adaptation in a rapidly changing Arctic environment, although how that works in practice has not been clearly articulated. This paper draws on three co-management cases from the Canadian Arctic to examine the role of knowledge co-production as an institutional trigger or mechanism to enable learning and adapting. Experience with knowledge co-production across the three cases is variable but outcomes illustrate how co-management actors are learning to learn through uncertainty and environmental change, or learning to be adaptive. Policy implications of this analysis are highlighted and include the importance of a long-term commitment to institution building, an enabling policy environment to sustain difficult social processes associated with knowledge co-production, and the value of diverse modes of communication, deliberation and social interaction.

• Weiss, K., Hamann, M., Kinney, M., and Marsh, H.  Knowledge exchange and policy influence in a marine resource governance network.  Global Environmental Change 22(1): 178-188, 2012.
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  Few case studies have considered the impact of network structure on the resilience of complex resource management systems that operate over large spatial scales. To help fill this knowledge gap our study examined two types of relational ties - knowledge exchange and policy influence - within a marine wildlife co-management network in Northern Australia. We conducted interviews and follow-up surveys with key-informant stakeholders in dugong and marine turtle management and used these data to perform social network analysis for the dugong and turtle co-management network. The network structure of this marine governance system supports extensive cross-scale information flow, but with a disproportionate amount of top-down policy influence compared with knowledge accumulation, an arrangement that may hinder evidence-based decision making. We developed a typological 'map' of stakeholder roles in the network to characterize each stakeholder's contribution of knowledge and ability to influence policy, helping to identify gaps or overlaps in network linkages. Improving communication links between knowledge producers and policy makers is important for evidence based decision making throughout the management network, while addressing overlapping management roles and functions should help decrease conflict in the system. These improvements would increase social-ecological resilience in the management network by providing better protection for marine species while meeting the needs of diverse stakeholders.

• Hochachka, W.M., Fink, D., Hutchinson, R.A., Sheldon, D., Wong, W.K., and Kelling, S.  Data-intensive science applied to broad-scale citizen science.  Trends in Ecology and Evolution 27(2): 130-137, 2012.
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  Identifying ecological patterns across broad spatial and temporal extents requires novel approaches and methods for acquiring, integrating and modeling massive quantities of diverse data. For example, a growing number of research projects engage continent-wide networks of volunteers ('citizen-scientists') to collect species occurrence data. Although these data are information rich, they present numerous challenges in project design, implementation and analysis, which include: developing data collection tools that maximize data quantity while maintaining high standards of data quality, and applying new analytical and visualization techniques that can accurately reveal patterns in these data. Here, we describe how advances in data-intensive science provide accurate estimates in species distributions at continental scales by identifying complex environmental associations.

• Humber, F., Godley, B.J., Ramahery, V., and Broderick, A.C.  Using community members to assess artisanal fisheries: the marine turtle fishery in Madagascar.  Animal Conservation 14(2): 175-185, 2011.
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  Fisheries are considered a major driver of population declines for many marine vertebrate species, and yet for some, data on the levels of direct catch are lacking, often due to the logistical challenges in assessing artisanal fisheries in remote and developing regions. Using community members to collect data can provide access to a greater wealth of information than that obtained by local or foreign researchers, often at a reduced financial cost. We monitored the harvest of marine turtles at 12 major villages in Madagascar using community members as data collectors (sous collecteurs) from each village, at a total cost of <US$ 3000 for 1 year. Community members were trained to collect biological and fisheries data on turtles landed and to use digital cameras to provide a visual record of each turtle catch recorded. A total of 699 marine turtle landings were documented, including four species, with by far the majority being green turtles Chelonia mydas (93.6%). When we contextualize our data with those of previous studies elsewhere in the region, we conservatively estimate that the annual turtle catch in the south-western province of Madagascar is between 10 000 and 16 000. Although turtle hunting is illegal under national law, there are currently no government initiatives to manage the fishery. This study is the first direct assessment of the level of exploitation of turtles in Madagascar, made possible through the use of community members as data collectors and has broad applicability towards similar data- gathering efforts in other artisanal fisheries.

• Graham, I.M., Harris, R.N., and Middlemas, S.J.  Seals, salmon and stakeholders: integrating knowledge to reduce biodiversity conflict.  Animal Conservation 14(6): 604-607, 2011.  
  
• McCall, M.K. and Dunn, C.E.  Geo-information tools for participatory spatial planning: Fulfilling the criteria for 'good' governance?  Geoforum 43(1): 81-94, 2012.
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  The last few decades have seen increasing attempts to foster 'collaborative' and 'participatory' approaches to spatial planning and decision-making, with a more sophisticated conceptualisation of the contested term, participation. Participatory, 'bottom-up' geo-information technologies have been concurrently developing and these are expected to strengthen participatory spatial planning; important among these has been the transformation of conventional mapping and GIS tools into Participatory GIS (PGIS). In this paper we explore the potential contributions of participatory geo-information tools towards participatory spatial planning, in terms of the principles and criteria of good governance. We discuss five fundamental principles of 'good' governance: accountability, legitimacy, respect, equity, and competence, and the potential of geo-information tools to contribute to, and detract from, such principles; although we focus especially on participation and the recognition and validation of local knowledge. We derive criteria for the five principles, and we identify a range of evaluation questions which can be operationalised so as to interrogate the criteria for judging the contribution of participatory tools and participatory spatial planning activities. We conclude by summarily assessing the potentials of participatory geo-information tools, particularly participatory mobile GIS, participatory 3-dimensional modelling, and visualisation features in PGIS.

• McCarthy, D.D.P. et al.  Collaborative geomatics and the Mushkegowuk Cree First Nations: Fostering adaptive capacity for community-based sub-arctic natural resource management.  Geoforum 43(2): 305-314, 2012.   
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  The remote First Nation (FN) communities of the Mushkegowuk Territory on the west coast of James Bay, Ontario, Canada are currently facing increased development pressures and the imposition of a government land use planning process. The land use planning process is mandated in the Far North Act (received Royal Assent on September 23, 2010). There is a need for capacity enhancement for community-based natural resource planning and management in the Territory. A number of frameworks are emerging for addressing change brought on by resource development and building resilience to such change at the community level. Among these include the concept of adaptive capacity. In collaboration with FN community leaders, we explored the use of "collaborative geomatics" tools to foster adaptive capacity. Our action research suggests that collaborative geomatics technologies should enhance the Mushkegowuk First Nations' adaptive capacity to address environmental and policy change by allowing them to collect and manage data collaboratively (e.g., traditional environmental knowledge, western science) to create opportunities for innovative community development, including natural resource development and management.

• Johnson, T.R.  Fishermen, scientists, and boundary spanners: Cooperative research in the U.S. Illex squid fishery.  Society and Natural Resources 24(3): 242-255, 2011.
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  This article presents a cooperative fisheries research effort aimed to improve the science and management of the U.S. Illex squid fishery. This collaboration between government scientists, the squid industry, and a consultant scientist produced new biological information about squid and improved the assessment of this species. This case illustrates the challenges and possibilities of involving nonscientific citizens in scientific research for policymaking. The involvement of the lead government assessment scientist for Illex squid was critical to the utility of the data collected. In this case, the integration of fishermen's contributory expertise in science occurred through the work of key boundary spanners with interactional expertise. Here this included a consultant scientist and key fishermen who were able to communicate with government scientists and the industry. The collaboration also provided some fishermen with interactional expertise related to doing science such that they were able to communicate their contributory expertise to scientists.

• Schumann, S.  Navigating the knowledge interface: fishers and biologists under co-management in Chile.  Society and Natural Resources 24(11): 1174-1188, 2011.
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  This article examines similarities and differences between the biological and ecological knowledge of small-scale fishers and the professional biologists assigned to work with them under a co-management program for shellfish in Chile. Its main finding is a high degree of internal variability among the knowledge of fishers, which complicates assessment of the degree to which fisher knowledge as a whole differs from scientific knowledge. It finds evidence to support several theories as to why such variability exists, including accounts of fishers acquiring new knowledge from biologists, replacing old knowledge with knowledge provided by biologists, and rejecting knowledge provided by biologists. It concludes that dichotomous portrayals of scientific and nonscientific knowledge are misleading for cases such as this, and that management will have to negotiate the knowledge interface in ways that go beyond abstract calls for knowledge integration.

• Wiber, M., Young, S., and Wilson, L.  Impact of aquaculture on commercial fisheries: fishermen's local ecological knowledge.  Human Ecology 40(1): 29-40, 2012.
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  The Bay of Fundy along the southwest coast of New Brunswick, Canada is one of the most densely stocked finfish aquaculture areas in the world. An inshore multi-species fishery that dates back to the earliest European settlement shares these waters, and has been the economic mainstay of coastal communities. These inshore fishermen are increasingly displaced by the expanding aquaculture industry. A recent study conducted among fishermen in Southwest New Brunswick recorded their observations about the environmental impact of finfish aquaculture and the consequences for their commercial fishery. Fishermen all reported significant environmental degradation around aquaculture sites. Within 2 years of an operation being established, fishermen reported that gravid female lobsters as well as herring avoid the area, scallop and sea urchin shells become brittle, scallop meat and sea urchin roe becomes discolored. The use of chemicals to control sea lice on farmed salmon has also caused lobster, crab and shrimp kills. These and other concerns suggest that more comprehensive and detailed studies are required to establish the environmental and economic interactions of aquaculture and the inshore fishery, as well as on the stocks on which that fishery rely. The study also points to the need for more effective use of fishermen's knowledge in designing such studies.

• Cornwell, M.L. and Campbell, L.M.  Co-producing conservation and knowledge: Citizen-based sea turtle monitoring in North Carolina, USA.  Social Studies of Science 42(1): 101-120, 2012.
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  In this paper we examine a volunteer-based sea turtle management project run by the state of North Carolina, USA, to explore collaborative conservation and citizen science. Through this case study, we unpack assumptions from the volunteerism literature and apply theories of co-production to understand how citizens evaluate science and produce knowledge while conducting wildlife monitoring. We demonstrate that the project maintains a healthy give and take between the state and the volunteers as they work together to manage endangered sea turtles. When tensions do emerge over specific issues such as nest relocation, volunteers engage with scientific debates and apply their knowledge gained through the project to push their priorities. While volunteers understand the state's position on conservation science, they counter with evidence from scientific literature and locally situated observations informed by an alternative view of human-environment relationships and specific goals for the project. Overall, we find that there is little evidence to support the notion that knowledge is 'co-produced' in the project. Instead, the combination of volunteer control over the local spaces of conservation and the state's need for volunteer labor results in the co-production of conservation practice.

• Preuss, K. and Dixon, M.  "Looking after country two-ways": Insights into Indigenous community-based conservation from the Southern Tanami.  Ecological Management and Restoration 13(1): 2-15, 2012.
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  This paper offers insights and practical lessons for a 'two-way' approach to combining Indigenous and non-Indigenous ecological knowledge in environmental planning and management. It is based on the experience of developing an Indigenous Protected Area to conserve 10 million hectares of biologically and culturally significant land in the Southern Tanami region of Central Australia.

• Ens, E.J., Towler, G.M., Daniels, C., Yugul Mangi Rangers, and Manwurrk Rangers.  Looking back to move forward: Collaborative ecological monitoring in remote Arnhem Land.  Ecological Management and Restoration 13(1): 26-35, 2012.
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  Indigenous land and sea managers are working across Australia for natural and cultural resource conservation. Justifying the outcomes of effort to funding bodies, the broader public and local communities is thwarted, however, by language differences, lack of technical capacity and complex local socio-economic and political histories. This paper details ways that two remote Indigenous ranger groups are collaborating with non-Indigenous ecologists to address this situation using Indigenous and non-Indigenous (two-way) techniques.

• Barbour, W. and Schlesinger, C.  Who's the boss? Post-colonialism, ecological research and conservation management on Australian Indigenous lands.  Ecological Management and Restoration 13(1): 36-41, 2012.
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  The involvement of Indigenous people in the national conservation effort is increasingly being acknowledged and valued in Australia. Ecological research can play an important role in reinforcing the efforts of Indigenous land managers; and interest from Indigenous and non-Indigenous ecologists and land managers to work together on ecological issues of common concern is increasing. Although there are many examples of successful collaborations there are also many instances where expectations, particularly of the Indigenous partners, are not met, and this is less frequently communicated. This paper, written from the perspective of an Arrernte researcher in partnership with his non-Indigenous colleague, outlines a range of challenges including the need for Indigenous people to have more control of what is done and why it is done on their country and to define and prioritise their own objectives for land management, which may or may not align with mainstream conservation agendas. Currently, Western conservation paradigms play the dominant role in how Natural Resource Management is practiced and how broader policy is set, and ecological research on Indigenous land is still most often led by the Western ecologists. This can leave out the ideas of Indigenous people and does little to address underlying inequitable power relationships. Indigenous Australians do not want to become spectators in the research process, giving away knowledge, or labourers to Western conservation agendas. They want to be active partners in developing better understandings of the environment and implementers of management that reflects shared agendas. Open discussion of these issues within the mainstream ecological literature is an important step towards change and will create better opportunities for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous ecological practitioners and Indigenous people dealing with land management policy.

• Hoffmann, B.D., Roeger, S., Wise, P., Dermer, J., Yunupingu, B., Lacey, D., Yunupingu, D., Marika, B., Marika, M., and Panton, B.  Achieving highly successful multiple agency collaborations in a cross-cultural environment: experiences and lessons from Dhimurru Aboriginal Corporation and partners.  Ecological Management and Restoration 13(1): 42-50, 2012.
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  Creating effective collaborations to address complex environmental management issues is becoming increasingly important, yet there is surprisingly little published to guide such collaborations. Dhimurru Aboriginal Corporation has a long and successful history of engaging external collaborators and pioneering the "both ways" approach to environmental management. Many of these partnerships have been highly successful, achieving nationally recognised environmental outcomes. Here, we present Dhimurru and some of its key collaborative projects in the context of these successes, drawing from our experiences in those collaborations to identify lessons learnt about how best to create these successful multi-organisational partnerships in a cross-cultural environment. Specifically we detail four attributes of Dhimurru's management philosophy, and eight key lessons that we believe have been most important for creating these successful partnerships. Notably, we detail numerous novel ways in which Dhimurru proactively prevents problems and promotes collaboration. Such lessons should help provide a basis for developing policies and practices for effective multi-agency, cross-cultural collaborations.

• Grice, A C., Cassady, J., and Nicholas, D.M.  Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge and values combine to support management of Nywaigi lands in the Queensland coastal tropics.  Ecological Management and Restoration 13(1): 93-97, 2012.
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  The Nywaigi Aboriginal people suffered disconnection from their ancestral lands in the coastal wet tropics of Queensland, Australia, during the regime of agricultural and urban settlement in the 19th and 20th centuries. Their acquisition of the Mungalla property in 1999 has allowed them to pursue customary and non-customary aspirations, combining scientific and Indigenous knowledge to address significant challenges and build the capacity of Nywaigi people in natural resource management.

• Ens, E.J., Finlayson, M., Preuss, K., Jackson, S., and Holcombe, S.  Australian approaches for managing "country" using Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge.  Ecological Management and Restoration 13(1): 100-107, 2012.
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  This paper synthesises the lessons learnt and challenges encountered when applying Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge and methods in natural and cultural resource management (NCRM) in northern and central Australia. We primarily draw on the papers within this special issue of Ecological Management & Restoration, which originated largely from the Indigenous land management symposium at the 2010 Ecological Society of Australia conference. Many of the papers and therefore this article discuss practical experiences that offer insight for enhanced on-ground cross-cultural NCRM and can inform broader thinking and theoretical critiques. A wider literature is also drawn upon to substantiate the points and broaden the scope of the synthesis. Four key themes for consideration in collaborative cross-cultural NCRM are discussed. They are as follows: 1. The differences in environmental philosophy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous cultures which profoundly shape perceptions of environmental management; 2. Cross-cultural awareness of Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge and methods; 3. The mechanics of two-way approaches to ecological research and managing country (NCRM as perceived by Indigenous people) and 4. Operational challenges for Indigenous NCRM organisations. To conclude, we point out five broad principles for managing country using Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge: (i) Recognise the validity of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous environmental philosophies; (ii) Create more opportunities for improved cross-cultural understanding, respect and collaborations; (iii) Involve Indigenous people and their knowledge and interests at all stages of the Indigenous NCRM project or research (including planning, design, implementation, communication and evaluation); (iv) Ensure that time and continuity of effort and resources are available (to undertake participatory processes and for trust-building and innovation) and (v) Establish high-level political support through legal and policy frameworks to maintain continuity of government commitment to Indigenous NCRM.

• Firmo, A.M.S., Tognella, M.M.P., Co, W.L.O., Barboza, R.R.D., and Alves, R.R.N.  Perceptions of environmental changes and Lethargic Crab Disease among crab harvesters in a Brazilian coastal community.  Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 7: art. 34, 2011.
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  Background  Lethargic Crab Disease (LCD) has caused significant mortalities in the population of Ucides cordatus crabs in the Mucuri estuary in Bahia State, Brazil, and has brought social and economic problems to many crab-harvesting communities that depend on this natural resource. The present work examined the perceptions of members of a Brazilian crab harvesting community concerning environmental changes and the Lethargic Crab Disease.  Methods  Field work was undertaken during the period between January and April / 2009, with weekly or biweekly field excursions during which open and semi-structured interviews were held with local residents in the municipality of Mucuri, Bahia State, Brazil. A total of 23 individuals were interviewed, all of whom had at least 20 years of crab-collecting experience in the study region. Key-informants (more experienced crab harvesters) were selected among the interviewees using the "native specialist" criterion.  Results  According to the collectors, LCD reached the Mucuri mangroves between 2004 and 2005, decimating almost all crab population in the area, and in 2007, 2008 and 2009 high mortalities of U. cordatus were again observed as a result of recurrences of this disease in the region. In addition to LCD, crabs were also suffering great stock reductions due to habitat degradation caused by deforestation, landfills, sewage effluents, domestic and industrial wastes and the introduction of exotic fish in the Mucuri River estuary. The harvesting community was found to have significant ecological knowledge about the functioning of mangrove swamp ecology, the biology of crabs, and the mass mortality that directly affected the economy of this community, and this information was largely in accordance with scientific knowledge.  Conclusions  The study of traditional knowledge makes it possible to better understand human interactions with the environment and aids in the elaboration of appropriate strategies for natural resource conservation.

• Newmaster, A.F., Berg, K.J., Ragupathy, S., Palanisamy, M., Sambandan, K., and Newmaster, S.G.  Local knowledge and conservation of seagrasses in the Tamil Nadu State of India.  Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 7: art. 37, 2011.
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  Local knowledge systems are not considered in the conservation of fragile seagrass marine ecosystems. In fact, little is known about the utility of seagrasses in local coastal communities. This is intriguing given that some local communities rely on seagrasses to sustain their livelihoods and have relocated their villages to areas with a rich diversity and abundance of seagrasses. The purpose of this study is to assist in conservation efforts regarding seagrasses through identifying Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) from local knowledge systems of seagrasses from 40 coastal communities along the eastern coast of India. We explore the assemblage of scientific and local traditional knowledge concerning the 1. classification of seagrasses (comparing scientific and traditional classification systems), 2. utility of seagrasses, 3. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of seagrasses, and 4. current conservation efforts for seagrass ecosystems. Our results indicate that local knowledge systems consist of a complex classification of seagrass diversity that considers the role of seagrasses in the marine ecosystem. This fine-scaled ethno-classification gives rise to five times the number of taxa (10 species = 50 local ethnotaxa), each with a unique role in the ecosystem and utility within coastal communities, including the use of seagrasses for medicine (e.g., treatment of heart conditions, seasickness, etc.), food (nutritious seeds), fertilizer (nutrient rich biomass) and livestock feed (goats and sheep). Local communities are concerned about the loss of seagrass diversity and have considerable local knowledge that is valuable for conservation and restoration plans. This study serves as a case study example of the depth and breadth of local knowledge systems for a particular ecosystem that is in peril.

• Greber, L., Frankic, A., and Muller, J.  National Estuarine Research Reserves (NERRs) as common grounds: towards a holistic science approach to research, education, and outreach with religious communities to enhance climate and environmental literacy at Waquoit Bay, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA.  Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences 8(2): 81-101, 2011.
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  The protection and management of coastal zones will face new challenges in the age of global climate change and other exacerbating environmental issues. Addressing these challenges will require input and effort from a broad range of communities and may include reaching beyond traditional participants in coastal management, such as scientists and policy-makers, to involve the commitments and networks of religious communities. Once seen to be at odds, scientific and religious communities are now finding common ground addressing a broad range of environmental concerns, in particular through sharing a key value of environmental stewardship. Are there particular types of environmental programs, languages, or outreach strategies that best suit religious audiences? What can scientific communities learn from religious communities in their turn? The climate as common ground project, based at the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, sought to address these questions. The project involved listening to the needs of the various religious communities in the Upper Cape area through conversations, interviews, events, and other venues, then implementing activities suggested by those conversations. We hope that sharing this participatory process and its results, including a holistic science approach to stewardship-oriented institutional cultures, will be useful for others seeking dialogue on environmental issues among scientific and religious communities.

• Lim, J.H. and Lee, E.  Information technologies, community characteristics and environmental outcomes: evidence from South Korea.  Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 55(3): 271-296, 2012.
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  While a growing body of literature suggests the regulatory potential of information and communication technologies for pollution abatement, empirical evidence on the subject remains limited. This research examines whether, and how, the provision of pollution information through government websites helps to address environmental harm in the context of developing countries. Drawing insights from the relevant literature, we construct and test hypotheses about informational and socio-demographic factors that are likely to explain the effectiveness of Internet-aided emission violations control in urban communities as perceived by environmental regulators. Findings from regression analysis indicate that decreases in emission violations as perceived by environmental field officials are: (1) attributable to the quality of municipal websites and local environmental activism; and (2) negatively related to population size. The research highlights the potential in municipalities' initiatives to utilise Internet technologies to provide access to rich environmental information and communication channels that facilitate interactions between citizens, grassroots groups, and regulatory agencies in putting community pressure on polluters.

• Bethel, M.B., Brien, L.F., Danielson, E.J., Laska, S.B., Troutman, J.P., Boshart, W.M., Giardino, M.J., and Phillips, M.A.  Blending geospatial technology and traditional ecological knowledge to enhance restoration decision-support processes in coastal Louisiana.  Journal of Coastal Research 27(3): 555-571, 2011.
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  More informed coastal restoration decisions have become increasingly important given limited resources available for restoration projects and the increasing magnitude of marsh degradation and loss across the Gulf Coast. This research investigated the feasibility and benefits of integrating geospatial technology with the traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of an indigenous Louisiana coastal population to assess the impacts of current and historical ecosystem change on community viability. The primary goal was to provide coastal resource managers with a decision-support tool that allows for a more comprehensive method of assessing localized ecological change in the Gulf Coast region, which can also benefit human community sustainability. Using remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS) mapping products, integrated with a coastal community's TEK to achieve this goal, the research team determined a method for producing vulnerability/ sustainability mapping products for an ecosystem-dependent livelihood base of a coastal population based on information derived from RS imagery prioritized with TEK. This study also demonstrates how such an approach can engage affected community residents who are interested in determining and addressing the causes and mitigating the decline of marsh habitat. Historical image data sets of the study area were acquired to understand evolution of land change to current conditions and project future vulnerability. Image-processing procedures were developed and applied to produce maps that detail land change in the study area at time intervals from 1968 to 2009. This information was combined in a GIS with acquired TEK and scientific data sets relating to marsh vegetation health and vulnerability characteristics to produce mapping products that provide new information for use in the coastal restoration decision-making process. This information includes: (1) marsh areas that are most vulnerable; and (2) the areas that are most significant to community sustainability.

• Conrad, C.C. and Hilchey, K.G.  A review of citizen science and community-based environmental monitoring: issues and opportunities.  Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 176(1-4): 273-291, 2011.
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  Worldwide, decision-makers and nongovernment organizations are increasing their use of citizen volunteers to enhance their ability to monitor and manage natural resources, track species at risk, and conserve protected areas. We reviewed the last 10 years of relevant citizen science literature for areas of consensus, divergence, and knowledge gaps. Different community-based monitoring (CBM) activities and governance structures were examined and contrasted. Literature was examined for evidence of common benefits, challenges, and recommendations for successful citizen science. Two major gaps were identified: (1) a need to compare and contrast the success (and the situations that induce success) of CBM programs which present sound evidence of citizen scientists influencing positive environmental changes in the local ecosystems they monitor and (2) more case studies showing use of CBM data by decision-makers or the barriers to linkages and how these might be overcome. If new research focuses on these gaps, and on the differences of opinions that exist, we will have a much better understanding of the social, economic, and ecological benefits of citizen science.

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