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- Fox, H.E. et al. Reexamining the science of marine protected areas: linking knowledge to action. Conservation Letters 5(1): 1-10, 2012.
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Marine protected areas (MPAs) are often implemented to conserve or restore species, fisheries, habitats, ecosystems, and ecological functions and services; buffer against the ecological effects of climate change; and alleviate poverty in coastal communities. Scientific research provides valuable insights into the social and ecological impacts of MPAs, as well as the factors that shape these impacts, providing useful guidance or 'rules of thumb' for science-based MPA policy. Both ecological and social factors foster effective MPAs, including substantial coverage of representative habitats and oceanographic conditions; diverse size and spacing; protection of habitat bottlenecks; participatory decision-making arrangements; bounded and contextually appropriate resource use rights; active and accountable monitoring and enforcement systems; and accessible conflict resolution mechanisms. For MPAs to realize their full potential as a tool for ocean governance, further advances in policy-relevant MPA science are required. These research frontiers include MPA impacts on nontarget and wide-ranging species and habitats; impacts beyond MPA boundaries, on ecosystem services, and on resource-dependent human populations, as well as potential scale mismatches of ecosystem service flows. Explicitly treating MPAs as 'policy experiments' and employing the tools of impact evaluation holds particular promise as a way for policy-relevant science to inform and advance science-based MPA policy.
- Mora, C. and Sale, P.F. Ongoing global biodiversity loss and the need to move beyond protected areas: a review of the technical and practical shortcomings of protected areas on land and sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 434: 251-266, 2011.
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A leading strategy in international efforts to reverse ongoing losses in biodiversity is the use of protected areas. We use a broad range of data and a review of the literature to show that the effectiveness of existing, and the current pace of the establishment of new, protected areas will not be able to overcome current trends of loss of marine and terrestrial biodiversity. Despite local successes of well-designed and well-managed protected areas proving effective in stemming biodiversity loss, there are significant shortcomings in the usual process of implementation of protected areas that preclude relying on them as a global solution to this problem. The shortcomings include technical problems associated with large gaps in the coverage of critical ecological processes related to individual home ranges and propagule dispersal, and the overall failure of such areas to protect against the broad range of threats affecting ecosystems. Practical issues include budget constraints, conflicts with human development, and a growing human population that will increase not only the extent of anthropogenic stressors but the difficulty in successfully enforcing protected areas. While efforts towards improving and increasing the number and/or size of protected areas must continue, there is a clear and urgent need for the development of additional solutions for biodiversity loss, particularly ones that stabilize the size of the world's human population and our ecological demands on biodiversity.
- Bearzi, M. Cetaceans and MPAs should go hand in hand: A case study in Santa Monica Bay, California. Ocean and Coastal Management 60: 56-59, 2012.
- De Santo, E.M., Jones, P.J.S., and Miller, A.M.M. Fortress conservation at sea: A commentary on the Chagos marine protected area. Marine Policy 35(2): 258-260, 2011.
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The world's largest no-take Marine Protected Area in Chagos is examined in light of the Convention on Biological Diversity's provisions on Access and Benefit Sharing, as well as terrestrial experiences with fortress conservation. It is acknowledged that this closure presents a unique opportunity to preserve an ecologically 'pristine' area. However, the means by which the political process unfolded are brought into question. In particular, the fact that the UK proceeded with designating the area whilst the European Court of Human Rights was deliberating the right of native Chagossians to return to the island is questioned. In addition it is argued that the scale of the area poses significant management and enforcement challenges, which are not necessarily taken into consideration in the rush for large, no-take Marine Protected Areas.
- Sand, P.H. Fortress conservation trumps human rights? Journal of Environment and Development 21(1): 36-39, 2012.
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The new 'marine protected area' proclaimed in 2010 in the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory [BIOT]) raises a fundamental conflict between colonial nature protection and the human rights of the indigenous Chagos islanders who were expelled to make way for a U.S. military base, and whose resettlement in the archipelago the U.K. government now seeks to prevent by invoking global environmental concerns.
- Sheppard, C.R.C. et al. Reefs and islands of the Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean: why it is the world's largest no-take marine protected area. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 22(2): 232-261, 2012.
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1. The Chagos Archipelago was designated a no-take marine protected area (MPA) in 2010; it covers 550 000 km², with more than 60 000 km² shallow limestone platform and reefs. This has doubled the global cover of such MPAs. 2. It contains 25–50% of the Indian Ocean reef area remaining in excellent condition, as well as the world's largest contiguous undamaged reef area. It has suffered from warming episodes, but after the most severe mortality event of 1998, coral cover was restored after 10 years. 3. Coral reef fishes are orders of magnitude more abundant than in other Indian Ocean locations, regardless of whether the latter are fished or protected. 4. Coral diseases are extremely low, and no invasive marine species are known. 5. Genetically, Chagos marine species are part of the Western Indian Ocean, and Chagos serves as a 'stepping-stone' in the ocean. 6. The no-take MPA extends to the 200 nm boundary, and includes 86 unfished seamounts and 243 deep knolls as well as encompassing important pelagic species. 7. On the larger islands, native plants, coconut crabs, bird and turtle colonies were largely destroyed in plantation times, but several smaller islands are in relatively undamaged state. 8. There are now 10 'important bird areas', coconut crab density is high and numbers of green and hawksbill turtles are recovering. 9. Diego Garcia atoll contains a military facility; this atoll contains one Ramsar site and several 'strict nature reserves'. Pollutant monitoring shows it to be the least polluted inhabited atoll in the world. Today, strict environmental regulations are enforced. 10. Shoreline erosion is significant in many places. Its economic cost in the inhabited part of Diego Garcia is very high, but all islands are vulnerable. 11. Chagos is ideally situated for several monitoring programmes, and use is increasingly being made of the archipelago for this purpose.
- Di Franco, A., Gillanders, B.M., De Benedetto, G., Pennetta, A., De Leo, G.A., and Guidetti, P. Dispersal patterns of coastal fish: Implications for designing networks of marine protected areas. PLoS ONE 7(2): art. e31681, 2012.
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Information about dispersal scales of fish at various life history stages is critical for successful design of networks of marine protected areas, but is lacking for most species and regions. Otolith chemistry provides an opportunity to investigate dispersal patterns at a number of life history stages. Our aim was to assess patterns of larval and post-settlement (i.e. between settlement and recruitment) dispersal at two different spatial scales in a Mediterranean coastal fish (i.e. white sea bream, Diplodus sargus sargus) using otolith chemistry. At a large spatial scale (~200 km) we investigated natal origin of fish and at a smaller scale (~30 km) we assessed "site fidelity" (i.e. post-settlement dispersal until recruitment). Larvae dispersed from three spawning areas, and a single spawning area supplied post-settlers (proxy of larval supply) to sites spread from 100 to 200 km of coastline. Post-settlement dispersal occurred within the scale examined of ~30 km, although about a third of post-settlers were recruits in the same sites where they settled. Connectivity was recorded both from a MPA to unprotected areas and vice versa. The approach adopted in the present study provides some of the first quantitative evidence of dispersal at both larval and post-settlement stages of a key species in Mediterranean rocky reefs. Similar data taken from a number of species are needed to effectively design both single marine protected areas and networks of marine protected areas.
- Allnutt, T.F. et al. Comparison of marine spatial planning methods in Madagascar demonstrates value of alternative approaches. PLoS ONE 7(2): art. e28969, 2012.
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The Government of Madagascar plans to increase marine protected area coverage by over one million hectares. To assist this process, we compare four methods for marine spatial planning of Madagascar's west coast. Input data for each method was drawn from the same variables: fishing pressure, exposure to climate change, and biodiversity (habitats, species distributions, biological richness, and biodiversity value). The first method compares visual color classifications of primary variables, the second uses binary combinations of these variables to produce a categorical classification of management actions, the third is a target-based optimization using Marxan, and the fourth is conservation ranking with Zonation. We present results from each method, and compare the latter three approaches for spatial coverage, biodiversity representation, fishing cost and persistence probability. All results included large areas in the north, central, and southern parts of western Madagascar. Achieving 30% representation targets with Marxan required twice the fish catch loss than the categorical method. The categorical classification and Zonation do not consider targets for conservation features. However, when we reduced Marxan targets to 16.3%, matching the representation level of the "strict protection" class of the categorical result, the methods show similar catch losses. The management category portfolio has complete coverage, and presents several management recommendations including strict protection. Zonation produces rapid conservation rankings across large, diverse datasets. Marxan is useful for identifying strict protected areas that meet representation targets, and minimize exposure probabilities for conservation features at low economic cost. We show that methods based on Zonation and a simple combination of variables can produce results comparable to Marxan for species representation and catch losses, demonstrating the value of comparing alternative approaches during initial stages of the planning process. Choosing an appropriate approach ultimately depends on scientific and political factors including representation targets, likelihood of adoption, and persistence goals.
- Peterson, A.M. and Stead, S.M. Rule breaking and livelihood options in marine protected areas. Environmental Conservation 38(3): 342-352, 2011.
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Two main drivers of global trends in noncompliance of marine protected areas regulations are food and income security. Declines in fish stocks have resulted in greater concerns for food security, especially in developing and coastal areas, and calls for environmental conservation are growing. Planning of marine protected areas has traditionally been based on biological and ecological data, only recently focusing on the human communities that are significantly dependent on coastal resources. The hypothesis that marine resource use is determined by socioeconomic factors (such as food security and income) and livelihood options was tested in two communities on the island of Rodrigues (Western Indian Ocean). As livelihood development can be a response to fisher displacement by protected areas, willingness towards alternative livelihood options and the differences in this between fisher demographic groups were also examined. Using semi-structured interviews, 72 fishers were surveyed on topics such as fishery and marine protected area (MPA) regulation noncompliance, current livelihoods and willingness to consider alternative livelihoods. Fishers believed Rodrigues fisheries suffer from high levels of noncompliance, owing mainly to a lack of livelihood alternatives and depleted stocks. Rodriguan fishers had low mobility, both within the fishery (for example gear types used and target species) and in movement to occupations outside the fishery. The fishers were generally willing to consider alternate livelihoods. Age was significantly correlated with overall willingness to consider alternative work, while gender and village were found to have a significant relationship with types of work that an individual was willing to consider. Policy makers and marine resource managers need to identify drivers of noncompliant behaviour and examine livelihood preferences at different scales (individual, within and between communities) prior to users being affected by MPA created displacement to more effectively address marine conservation and food security goals. The findings offer new empirical evidence to strengthen support for arguments that could be made by policy makers to demand more balanced consideration of the effects of MPAs on socioeconomic factors along with environmental considerations in communities highly dependent on access to the marine areas that will be affected by MPAs.
- McKinley, A.C., Ryan, L., Coleman, M.A., Knott, N.A., Clark, G., Taylor, M.D., and Johnston, E.L. Putting marine sanctuaries into context: a comparison of estuary fish assemblages over multiple levels of protection and modification. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21(7): 636-648, 2011.
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1. In recent decades there has been a significant effort to establish marine sanctuaries for the purpose of protecting marine biodiversity and ecological processes. While many studies have demonstrated that marine sanctuaries increase the abundance, diversity, and trophic level of marine fish communities, few have compared these parameters across multiple levels of protection and human modification. 2. This study utilized baited remote underwater video to compare fish assemblages between marine parks, between different levels of protection within parks (sanctuary and habitat protection zones), and between parks and highly modified systems with similar ecological communities. 3. It was demonstrated that sanctuary zones have higher abundance of targeted fish species compared with other areas within some marine parks. 4. The total abundance of targeted species and abundances of some key fisheries species (e.g. pink snapper) were found to be higher in sanctuary zones. This suggests that increased protection may be effective at improving these aspects of the fish assemblage. 5. However, when marine parks were compared with highly modified environments it was found that targeted species were much more abundant in the highly modified systems. 6. Community composition of entire fish assemblages also differed between these levels of modification and economically important fisheries species contributed most to this difference. 7. These findings suggest that while highly protected sanctuary zones may increase the abundance of targeted fish compared with less protected areas within the same estuary, highly industrialized or urbanized systems, not typically chosen as marine parks, may actually support more targeted species of fish. 8. It was demonstrated that forms of modification in addition to fishing pressure are having large effects on fish assemblages and productivity.
- Rice, J. and Houston, K. Representativity and networks of Marine Protected Areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21(7): 649-657, 2011.
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1. Through recent Decisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), States have agreed to establish networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and that representativity is a necessary feature of the networks. 2. There is extensive literature on the intent of these commitments and scientific guidance on network design. The guidance specifies that to have representativity captured in a network requires that a suitable biogeographical classification exists and that areas which 'represent' the biogeographical subdivisions are included. However, no operational guidance has been provided on how to determine that a subdivision is adequately 'represented' by a protected area. 3. This paper looks at the management and conservation functions expected to be served by representative MPAs, including an 'insurance policy' function, a 'benchmark' or natural control function, and a 'seed stock' function. 4. The scales at which marine ecological processes typically operate are reviewed, as a basis for determining the scales of MPAs needed to provide these functions. 5. It is concluded that representative MPAs at the spatial scales of the interactions of key top predators and forage fish generally should ensure spatial scales large enough to give protection to the other processes as well. 6. To ensure the key functions are served, the representative MPAs also should have sufficient protection that human pressures do not alter the characteristics of these ecological processes.
- Calado, H., Ng, K., Lopes, C., and Paramio, L. Introducing a legal management instrument for offshore marine protected areas in the Azores – The Azores Marine Park. Environmental Science and Policy 14(8): 1175-1187, 2011.
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The Azores Marine Park (AMP) proposal, developed by the Geographical Information and Territorial Planning Centre (Centro de Informação Geografica e Planeamento Territorial; CIGPT) at University of the Azores (Ponta Delgada), was submitted in 2010 by the Azores Environment Agency to the Azores Parliament and will be implemented upon approval. This is the most recent effort towards establishing a Portuguese legal entity for consolidating and creating a coherent Azorean network of offshore marine protected areas (MPAs). The proposal included seven existing designated MPAs: four offshore habitats located within the Azorean Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ; Banco Dom João de Castro seamount, Sedlo seamount, Lucky Strike hydrothermal vent field and Menez Gwen hydrothermal vent field), one located beyond the Azorean EEZ (Rainbow hydrothermal vent field), and two Marine Important Bird Areas (North of Corvo Offshore, and North of Corvo and Faial Offshore). These MPAs had been nominated by various conservation organizations and site-specific legally binding recommendations have been developed. AMP recommendations were created for each site according to strict protection objectives and management objectives adapted from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Protected Area Management Categories. Since its submission, three additional high seas MPAs in areas beyond national jurisdiction and subject to Portuguese continental shelf extension claims (Altair seamount, Antialtair seamount and an area of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of the Azores) were nominated in September 2010 by the OSPAR Commission. These MPAs have subsequently been proposed for inclusion in the AMP. With intensifying efforts to protect biodiversity, an increase in offshore Azorean MPAs is likely. Consequently, the AMP will likely extend its spatial limit to include new high seas MPAs and develop legally binding regulations for each new MPA as an on-going process. The full-scale "one-stop agency" AMP is envisioned to provide a representative offshore MPA network for the Azores that will protect all major ecosystem features in relation to their habitats and species, at an appropriate scale, within and across each bioregion.
- Malcolm, H.A., Foulsham, E., Pressey, R.L., Jordan, A., Davies, P.L., Ingleton, T., Johnstone, N., Hessey, S., and Smith, S.D.A. Selecting zones in a marine park: Early systematic planning improves cost-efficiency; combining habitat and biotic data improves effectiveness. Ocean and Coastal Management 59: 1-12, 2012.
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Systematic planning, using algorithm tools, can improve biodiversity representation in 'no-take' zones in a marine park while reducing costs of meeting conservation targets. The current zoning plan for the 870 km² Solitary Islands Marine Park (SIMP), designed without algorithm tools, provides an example to compare the efficiency of zoning scenarios that include or ignore the existing zoning scheme and to assess the utility of habitat and/or biotic data for planning. Marxan was used to compare representation of habitat categories and a selection of fish species using 3 scenarios for 'no-take' sanctuary zones: 1) clean slate; 2) building on the existing sanctuary zones; and 3) current sanctuary zones (2002 zone plan). Three target levels were considered (10%, 20% and 30% representation of habitats and fish species in sanctuary zones). The use of habitat and fish data combined was compared with results obtained using each dataset separately. The clean-slate option was the most cost-efficient. Extending the existing sanctuary zones to achieve equivalent representation required more area and longer boundaries. For both of these scenarios, a large cross-shelf sanctuary zone at the widest part of SIMP was an important requirement for achieving representation. Neither habitat categories nor reef fish assemblages were fully represented in the current zoning plan. Fish and habitat features combined were more effective than habitat alone at selecting areas known to have high conservation values in the SIMP. The fish data in isolation were too spatially constrained for systematic planning at this scale.
- Rojas-Nazar, Ú., Gaymer, C.F., Squeo, F.A., Garay-Flühmann, R., and López, D. Combining information from benthic community analysis and social studies to establish no-take zones within a multiple uses marine protected area. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 22(1): 74-86, 2012.
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1. A decision support tool was used to determine priority sites for marine conservation within the Isla Grande de Atacama multiple uses marine protected area (MUMPA) in northern Chile, based on both biological and social information. Scuba diving, and an unweighted paired-group method using arithmetic average (UPGMA) analyses were used to determine the main benthic communities found in the shallow rocky and soft-sediment subtidal. 2. To establish the costs of conservation, a social survey was undertaken to identify major users, uses and localities within the MUMPA. A multi-layer database with biological, physical, and social information was generated and further defined 28 approximately 70 ha analysis units. Explicit conservation criteria were then determined and four conservation goals defined (protection of 10, 20, 50, and 70% of each of the communities). 3. Seven rocky reef and three soft-sediment communities were identified in the shallow subtidal. Four of the 28 units had high costs of conservation owing to high frequency of use by fishermen, divers, and algae harvesters (main users). These areas represented the highest risks for potential conflicts with the main users. 4. Under the conservation goals of 10% and 20%, 36.8 and 44.4% of the whole marine area were selected as priority areas for protection respectively. The units selected presented low and medium costs of conservation, thus they had low risks of potential conflicts with users. 5. This is the first study that uses a decision support tool to identify priority sites (i.e. units) in the shallow subtidal based on benthic communities and also incorporates social aspects to assess conservation costs. The use of social aspects enables the establishment of management strategies that agree both with biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development of fishing communities. This approach can be replicated for the planning of other coastal MPAs where artisanal fisheries and tourist activities co-occur and interact with conservation efforts.
- Silva, M.A., Prieto, R., Magalhães, S., Seabra, M.I., Machete, M., and Hammond, P.S. Incorporating information on bottlenose dolphin distribution into marine protected area design. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 22(1): 122-133, 2012.
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1. The steady growth of the whale-watching activities in the Azores and its concentration in a small area that partly overlaps the home range of a resident group of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) was one of the driving forces to proposing part of the range of this group as a marine protected area (MPA). 2. Six years of data collected during boat surveys were used to investigate how dolphins used the candidate MPA (cMPA) and whether they showed any preference for the cMPA over adjacent areas. This work also estimated the fraction of the resident individuals and group's range included in the cMPA and examined whether there were any temporal changes in its use. 3. Mean daily encounter rate of bottlenose dolphins was higher inside than outside the cMPA. Dolphin sightings inside the cMPA were nearly double what was predicted by the survey effort. Dolphins used the cMPA with similar intensity throughout the years. 4. Resident dolphins were frequently sighted in the cMPA. However, less than 20% of the known range (650 km²) and 41% (39 km²) of the core area of the group lay within the cMPA. The reliability in the use of the cMPA over a 6-year period suggests its importance for the dolphin population remained relatively stable but its surface area was clearly insufficient to satisfy the spatial requirements of the resident group. 5. Based on these findings, it was proposed to the Regional Government of the Azores to extend the boundaries of the cMPA. Accordingly, the modified protected area established in 2008 includes 100% of the core area of the resident group of bottlenose dolphins. This study provides an example of how information on cetacean habitat-use patterns may be used to design ecologically meaningful protected areas for this group.
- De Santo, E.M. From paper parks to private conservation: the role of NGOs in adapting marine protected area strategies to climate change. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 15(1): 25-40, 2012.
- Olds, A.D., Connolly, R.M., Pitt, K.A., and Maxwell, P.S. Habitat connectivity improves reserve performance. Conservation Letters 5(1): 56-63, 2012.
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Connectivity is now a common consideration in conservation planning, but we need further empirical evidence for the role of connectivity in catalyzing reserve function. We examined whether connectivity improved reserve performance by investigating how isolation between coral reefs and mangroves influenced fish assemblages inside and outside a reserve in Moreton Bay, Australia. Connectivity greatly enhanced reserve performance, with close reserve habitats supporting more harvested fish, and a greater abundance of both piscivores and herbivores than similar nonreserve locations. Close reserve habitats also contained fewer prey fish than nonreserve locations. In contrast, fish abundance in isolated reserve habitats did not differ from similar nonreserve locations. We demonstrate that connectivity can improve the performance of a reserve in promoting fish abundance. We highlight its importance for maintaining ecological processes in reserves and advocate the prioritization of areas of similarly connected habitat for conservation.
- Vandeperre, F. et al. Effects of no-take area size and age of marine protected areas on fisheries yields: a meta-analytical approach. Fish and Fisheries 12(4): 412-426, 2011.
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Marine protected areas (MPAs) are often promoted as tools for biodiversity conservation as well as for fisheries management. Despite increasing evidence of their usefulness, questions remain regarding the optimal design of MPAs, in particular concerning their function as fisheries management tools, for which empirical studies are still lacking. Using 28 data sets from seven MPAs in Southern Europe, we developed a meta-analytical approach to investigate the effects of protection on adjacent fisheries and asking how these effects are influenced by MPA size and age. Southern European MPAs showed clear effects on the surrounding fisheries, on the 'catch per unit effort' (CPUE) of target species, but especially on the CPUE of the marketable catch. These effects depended on the time of protection and on the size of the no-take area. CPUE of both target species and the marketable catch increased gradually by 2–4% per year over a long time period (at least 30 years). The influence of the size of the no-take area appeared to be more complex. The catch rates of the entire fishery in and around the MPA were higher when the no-take areas were smaller. Conversely, catch rates of selected fisheries that were expected to benefit most from protection increased when the no-take area was larger. Our results emphasize the importance of MPA size on its export functions and suggest that an adequate, often extended, time frame be used for the management and the evaluation of effectiveness of MPAs.
- Follesa, M.C., Cannas, R., Cau, A., Cuccu, D., Gastoni, A., Ortu, A., Pedoni, C., Porcu, C., and Cau, A. Spillover effects of a Mediterranean marine protected area on the European spiny lobster Palinurus elephas (Fabricius, 1787) resource. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21(6): 564-572, 2011.
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1. An assessment is made of the reserve's benefits within the no-take area of Su Pallosu (Western Mediterranean) and in its neighbouring fishing ground in the 12 years since its establishment. 2. Using tag recapture data, Palinurus elephas were found up to 50 km from the centre of the reserve. 3. Experimental CPUE inside the no-take area indicated significant increases over time in both abundance and biomass. The percentage increase in biomass from 1997, the year before all forms of fishing were banned, to 2009 was about 500%. Commercial surveys performed in 2008-2009 in the surrounding areas showed a negative gradient of lobster CPUE with increasing distance from the border of the MPA. The most productive zone was located within about 6 km from the reserve boundary. 4. The results show that, to date, adult spillover has aided local fishing. The small size of the study area makes it easy to record a significant biological response after the first year of protection. However, for a long-lived species such as P. elephas, a 12 year horizon can provide only partial evidence of these benefits.
- La Mesa, G., Molinari, A., Bava, S., Finoia, M.G., Cattaneo-Vietti, R., and Tunesi, L. Gradients of abundance of sea breams across the boundaries of a Mediterranean marine protected area. Fisheries Research 111(1-2): 24-30, 2011.
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In this study we assess the existence of gradients of abundance (density and biomass) of the sea breams Diplodus puntazzo, Diplodus sargus and Diplodus vulgaris across the boundaries of the Portofino MPA (NW Mediterranean) in order to evaluate reserve effect and to provide evidence of spillover. Fish were visually censused in shallow rocky habitat (4–7 m depth) at replicate sites within the different MPA zones and in adjacent unprotected areas. Higher values of sea breams size, density and biomass were usually observed inside MPA compared to unprotected areas, likely due to the enforcement of protection. We found evidence of negative gradients of sea bream density and biomass across the MPA boundaries, although shape and steepness of gradients changed depending on species, sampling time and boundary orientation. Fish density and biomass decreased abruptly just 100 m outside the MPA and remained close to zero off the western boundary. A partial recovery in fish density was recorded eastward, about 1 km apart from the MPA boundary. Overall, our results were consistent with the presence of a moderate fish spillover, considering that a high fishing effort close to the MPA boundaries could have prevented any potential increase in abundance just outside the MPA.
- Selig, E.R., Casey, K.S., and Bruno, J.F. Temperature-driven coral decline: the role of marine protected areas. Global Change Biology 18(5): 1561-1570, 2012.
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Warming ocean temperatures are considered to be an important cause of the degradation of the world's coral reefs. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been proposed as one tool to increase coral reef ecosystem resistance and resilience (i.e. recovery) to the negative effects of climate change, yet few studies have evaluated their efficacy in achieving these goals. We used a high resolution 4 km global temperature anomaly database from 1985–2005 and 8040 live coral cover surveys on protected and unprotected reefs to determine whether or not MPAs have been effective in mitigating temperature-driven coral loss. Generally, protection in MPAs did not reduce the effect of warm temperature anomalies on coral cover declines. Shortcomings in MPA design, including size and placement, may have contributed to the lack of an MPA effect. Empirical studies suggest that corals that have been previously exposed to moderate levels of thermal stress have greater adaptive capacity and resistance to future thermal stress events. Existing MPAs protect relatively fewer reefs with moderate anomaly frequencies, potentially reducing their effectiveness. However, our results also suggest that the benefits from MPAs may not be great enough to offset the magnitude of losses from acute thermal stress events. Although MPAs are important conservation tools, their limitations in mitigating coral loss from acute thermal stress events suggest that they need to be complemented with policies aimed at reducing the activities responsible for climate change.
- Knip, D.M., Heupel, M.R., and Simpfendorfer, C.A. Evaluating marine protected areas for the conservation of tropical coastal sharks. Biological Conservation 148(1): 200-209, 2012.
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Global declines in shark populations have created uncertainty in the future status of many species and conservation efforts are urgently needed. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are used increasingly as conservation tools around the world, but how they benefit mobile and wide ranging species like sharks remains unclear. To evaluate the degree of protection MPAs may provide for sharks, we used an array of acoustic receivers to examine the movements and spatial use of two tropical coastal species within two MPAs in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia. Juvenile pigeye (Carcharhinus amboinensis) and adult spottail (Carcharhinus sorrah) sharks were fitted with acoustic transmitters from 2009 to 2010. Both species displayed long-term use of MPAs, with some individuals detected for longer than 600 days. The mean percentage of time C. amboinensis and C. sorrah spent inside MPAs was 22% and 32%, respectively. MPA use varied seasonally, with C. amboinensis spending a higher percentage of time inside MPAs in summer (mean = 28%) and C. sorrah spending a higher percentage of time inside MPAs in winter (mean = 40%). Although sharks used large areas inside MPAs, most individuals tended to use only half of the available protected space. In addition, all sharks made excursions from MPAs and individuals exited and re-entered at consistent locations along the MPA boundaries. These results demonstrate that MPAs have conservation benefits for shark populations by providing protection across different species and life stages, and tracking studies can be used to help tailor MPA design to maximize effectiveness.
- Berumen, M.L., Almany, G.R., Planes, S., Jones, G.P., Saenz-Agudelo, P., and Thorrold, S.R. Persistence of self-recruitment and patterns of larval connectivity in a marine protected area network. Ecology and Evolution 2(2): 444-452, 2012.
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The use of marine protected area (MPA) networks to sustain fisheries and conserve biodiversity is predicated on two critical yet rarely tested assumptions. Individual MPAs must produce sufficient larvae that settle within that reserve's boundaries to maintain local populations while simultaneously supplying larvae to other MPA nodes in the network that might otherwise suffer local extinction. Here, we use genetic parentage analysis to demonstrate that patterns of self-recruitment of two reef fishes (Amphiprion percula and Chaetodon vagabundus) in an MPA in Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea, were remarkably consistent over several years. However, dispersal from this reserve to two other nodes in an MPA network varied between species and through time. The stability of our estimates of self-recruitment suggests that even small MPAs may be self-sustaining. However, our results caution against applying optimization strategies to MPA network design without accounting for variable connectivity among species and over time.
- Linares, C., Garrabou, J., Hereu, B., Diaz, D., Marschal, C., Sala, E., and Zabala, M. Assessing the effectiveness of marine reserves on unsustainably harvested long-lived sessile invertebrates. Conservation Biology 26(1): 88-96, 2012.
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Although the rapid recovery of fishes after establishment of a marine reserve is well known, much less is known about the response of long-lived, sessile, benthic organisms to establishment of such reserves. Since antiquity, Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum) has been harvested intensively for use in jewelry, and its distribution is currently smaller than its historical size throughout the Mediterranean Sea. To assess whether establishment of marine reserves is associated with a change in the size and number of red coral colonies that historically were not harvested sustainably, we analyzed temporal changes in mean colony diameter and density from 1992 to 2005 within red coral populations at different study sites in the Medes Islands Marine Reserve (established in 1992) and in adjacent unprotected areas. Moreover, we compared colony size in the Medes Islands Marine Reserve, where recreational diving is allowed and poaching has been observed after reserve establishment, with colony size in three other marine protected areas (Banyuls, Carry-le-Rouet, and Scandola) with the enforced prohibition of fishing and diving. At the end of the study, the size of red coral colonies at all sampling sites in the Medes Islands was significantly smaller than predicted by growth models and smaller than those in marine protected areas without fishing and diving. The annual number of recreational dives and the percent change in the basal diameter of red coral colonies were negatively correlated, which suggests that abrasion by divers may increase the mortality rates of the largest red coral colonies within this reserve. Our study is the first quantitative assessment of a poaching event, which was detected during our monitoring in 2002, inside the marine reserve. Poaching was associated with a loss of approximately 60% of the biomass of red coral colonies.
- Gormley, A.M., Slooten, E., Dawson, S., Barker, R.J., Rayment, W., du Fresne, S., and Bräger, S. First evidence that marine protected areas can work for marine mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 49(2): 474-480, 2012.
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- Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been advocated for the protection of threatened marine mammals, but there is no empirical evidence that they are effective. In 1988, the Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary was established to reduce gillnet mortalities of Hector's dolphin Cephalorhynchus hectori, an endangered dolphin species endemic to New Zealand. This study assesses the effectiveness of the MPA in improving the survival rate of Hector's dolphin at Banks Peninsula.
- Over 21 years, we undertook photo-identification surveys of Hector's dolphins along standardized transects from small outboard-powered boats. From 1986 to 2006, we photographically captured 462 reliably marked individuals. We estimated mean annual survival during the pre-sanctuary and post-sanctuary periods by applying a Bayesian random effects capture-recapture model to the data. Population growth was estimated from population simulations using a stage-structured matrix model.
- We estimate a 90% probability that survival has improved between the pre-sanctuary and post-sanctuary periods, with estimates of mean survival probability increasing by 5·4% (from 0·863 to 0·917). This improvement in survival corresponds to a 6% increase in mean annual population growth (from 0·939 to 0·995).
- Synthesis and applications. Our study demonstrates improvement in a demographic parameter of an endangered marine mammal species following conservation action. Our results provide evidence that area-based protection measures can be effective for marine mammals. We note that estimating demographic parameters in marine mammals requires many years of data to achieve sufficient precision to detect biologically meaningful change. MPAs should be established with a commitment to long-term monitoring.
- Jones, P.J.S., Qiu, W., and De Santo, E.M. 2011. Governing Marine Protected Areas – Getting the Balance Right. Technical Report, United Nations Environment Programme. 105pp.
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Collaborative management or co-management is a common concept or narrative that is employed in natural resource and protected area governance, to explore the challenges of combining these three approaches, whereby local communities and the state work on a partnership basis to sustainably manage natural resource use and/or conserve biodiversity, potentially involving all three of the following approaches:
- Top-down: the need for state control through laws and other regulations to ensure that biodiversity and natural resources are actually 'protected' against degradation and destruction;
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Bottom-up: the need to adopt community-based approaches to protected area governance that decentralise decision-making processes and empower local people by involving them in deliberations and decisions; and
- Market incentives: the need for economic initiatives to support alternative, compatible livelihoods, etc; the need to attach an economic value to biodiversity in terms of natural capital and ecosystem services, as a means of providing for balanced decisions; the need to attach property rights to environmental resources in order to promote economic rationalism.
Co-management arguably simply serves as a new framing device as to the relative emphasis that should be placed on the three general approaches outlined above. MPAs are an important focus for debates concerning how these different approaches can be combined in co-management. It is widely accepted that the co-management of MPAs is the way forward, but there are many different interpretations of this concept and it is applied in many different ways amongst MPAs in different contexts. One way of considering the challenges of co-managing MPAs is to consider the question: What does "'design and management of MPAs must be both top-down and bottom-up" (Kelleher1999) actually mean in practice? Rather than exploring this question and the related debates through the literature, this research project aims to explore it through a range of case studies, employing a specifically developed case study research approach – the marine protected area governance (MPAG) framework – to support getting the balance right between the three governance approaches and, ultimately, between the conservation of marine biodiversity and the sustainable use of marine resources. In examining the relative roles of state, market and people-steered approaches, the different case studies examined in this project will explore the proposition that whilst certain approaches are effective at addressing some challenges in some contexts, other sorts of approaches are generally required to address other challenges in other contexts. The effectiveness of an approach or, more likely, a combination of approaches in a given case will depend significantly on the challenge and the attributes of the local context in which the challenge has emerged. In addition, the national and international contextual attributes, particularly those related to strategic statutory biodiversity conservation obligations, need to be considered. An important element of this approach is that case studies are analysed on the basis of the governance approaches that are actually effective in addressing conflicts and achieving conservation objectives, rather than on the basis that a particular category of governance approaches, based on state, people or market steer, should be effective. Protected area governance case studies are thus assessed on an open and realistic basis, rather than on the basis of theoretical and ideological ideals by which a particular governance approach might be considered to be 'right' or 'best'. The 'bottom line' for these case study analyses is whether the governance of a given MPA is effective in achieving specific conservation objectives and how governance might be improved in order to be more effective.
- Hamilton, R.J., Potuku, T., and Montambault, J.R. Community-based conservation results in the recovery of reef fish spawning aggregations in the Coral Triangle. Biological Conservation 144(6): 1850-1858, 2011.
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In the Coral Triangle community-based marine protected areas (MPAs) are being established at a prolific rate. Their establishment can benefit both fisheries and biodiversity, and they provide both a socially and economically acceptable means of managing coral reefs in developing nations. However, because such MPAs are typically small (usually <0.5 km²), they will rarely provide protection to large mobile fishes. An exception to this limitation may exist when community-based MPAs are established to protect small sites where vital processes occur, such as fish spawning aggregations (FSAs). To test the effectiveness of small (0.1–0.2 km²) MPAs for protecting FSAs, we monitored three FSA sites where brown-marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus), camouflage grouper (Epinephelus polyphekadion) and squaretail coralgrouper (Plectropomus areolatus) aggregate to spawn. Sites were monitored during peak reproductive periods (several days prior to each new moon) between January 2005 and November 2009. All three sites are located in New Ireland Province, Papua New Guinea, and had been exploited for decades, but in 2004 two sites were protected by the establishment of community-based MPAs. The third site continued to be exploited. Over the monitoring period densities of E. fuscoguttatus and E. polyphekadion increased at both MPAs, but not at the site that remained open to fishing. At one MPA the densities of E. polyphekadion increased tenfold. Our findings demonstrate that community-based MPAs that are appropriately designed and adequately enforced can lead to the recovery of populations of vulnerable species that aggregate to spawn.
- Ban, N.C., Cinner, J.E., Adams, V.M., Mills, M., Almany, G.R., Ban, S.S., McCook, L.J., and White, A. Recasting shortfalls of marine protected areas as opportunities through adaptive management. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 22(2): 262-271, 2012.
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- Many marine ecosystems are in critical decline.
- Iterative assessments of the costs, benefits, and problems associated with conservation initiatives such as marine protected areas (MPAs) can help to improve their effectiveness.
- The increasingly popular framework of marine spatial planning (MSP) provides opportunities for improving marine management but also needs to avoid similar shortfalls to those identified for MPAs.
- There is a critical need for realistic presentation of the scope and capacity of MPAs to counteract biodiversity loss, both in isolation and as part of marine spatial planning or other approaches to complementary management.
- The purpose of this viewpoint is to generate increased momentum to integrate MPAs with other strategies and to recognize the important advances that have been made in MPA planning, implementation and management.
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