Aquaculture Issues

We have identified the following issues as important aquaculture-related topics. For each of the following issues we provide a brief introduction and a list of important reports and other resources. For several of the issues, including the important environmental concerns, we have developed issue briefings that are designed to summarize the issue in a concise manner.

Aquaculture Development

There is now little doubt that the world’s fisheries are in crisis and that in the future increasingly more fish and shellfish will be obtained from aquaculture to meet the growing demand for seafood that catching fish cannot provide. Aquaculture now accounts for roughly one-third of the world’s total supply of food fish and undoubtedly the contribution of aquaculture to fish supplies will increase in the future as aquaculture continues to develop. Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some sort of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector of the world food economy, increasing by more than 10% per year and currently accounts for more than 40% of all fish consumed. Unfortunately, aquaculture often is developed in an unsustainable manner, which can result in environmental and social problems. With the expected expansion of aquaculture in the coming years it will be vital that sustainable practices be implemented and further developed to avoid causing damage to important and already-stressed coastal areas.

Aquaculture Feeds

Some forms of aquaculture are highly dependent on wild fisheries for feed inputs. As a result, they are net consumers of fish and can decrease the amount of fish potentially available for human consumption. Farming carnivorous species of fish, such as salmon, trout, tuna, grouper and cod, requires a protein rich, high-energy diet. Commercially prepared feeds are given to these farmed fish, with much of the protein coming from fishmeal and much of the fat coming from fish oil.

Aquaculture Wastes

Some types of fish farm operations can produce large amounts of waste. Wastes can include 1) particulate matter from fecal material and uneaten food, 2) nutrients associated with the preceding and 3) chemicals and drugs, such as pesticides, disinfectants and antibiotics. These wastes can negatively impact adjacent environments.

Diseases and Parasites

The importation of exotic species for aquaculture, as well as the transport of species for culture between different facilities and regions, can lead to the introduction of pathogens that impact wild populations of fish and shellfish. Not only can the importation of the actual organisms themselves beharmful, but also there are risks involved with the movement of contaminated water, containers and other equipment, which may be responsible for the introduction or transport of disease organisms.

Genetic Modification of Aquatic Organisms

With expected increases in worldwide demand for food, and with food shortages currently experienced in many parts of the world, some segments of the agriculture industry and government have started to suggest that increased yields could and should be achieved through genetic modification of crops, including farm animals. A similar effort is underway to increase production of fish and shellfish through genetic modification in the aquaculture industry. This recent push by some in the industry, however, poses significant risks to the environment, and potentially - to human health. In addition, there are serious questions regarding the credibility of claims about increased food security through genetic modification of aquatic animals, especially when much of the primary focus of aquaculture biotechnology is largely on luxury products for supplying high-end markets.

Interactions Between Wild and Farmed Fish

Aquaculture is an important gateway for the introduction of non-indigenous species and strains of fish. The interactions between farmed and wild fish are problematic for many reasons. Genetics: Selectively bred, farm-raised fish that escape from aquaculture facilities and reproduce with wild fish can cause a decrease in the genetic diversity of wild populations. Competition: Farm-raised fish that escape into the wild can negatively affect wild populations through competition for food, habitat, and mates. Disease: The high densities of fish held at aquaculture facilities can lead to increased levels of disease and parasites; these can be transferred to wild fish residing in the vicinity of the farms, as well as spread to wild fish by escapees.

Offshore Aquaculture

In recent years, as more questions have been raised about the sustainability of some forms of coastal fish farming, the aquaculture industry and government agencies in the United States and elsewhere have begun looking to develop aquaculture operations in open ocean waters, including exposed state waters and those of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), a region of federal waters from the state boundary (usually 3 miles) out to 200 nautical miles offshore. In the United States, no regulatory regime exists for aquaculture in the EEZ and there is much confusion about the permitting, site selection, monitoring and impacts of offshore aquaculture.

Policy and Regulation

Most studies of aquaculture policy and regulation conclude that it is characterized by a state of regulatory quagmire—there is a complex, fragmented and uncertain nature of regulations affecting aquaculture. However, many of these conclusions are made in reference to perceived negative impacts of the current structure and administration of aquaculture policies and regulations on the aquaculture industry, rather than raising considerations about the gaps in legal and regulatory coverage with respect to environmental impacts of aquaculture operations. A number of federal statutes, executive orders, and international treaties to which the U.S. is a party are applicable to various environmental aspects of commercial aquaculture. Not all of them, however, are adequately applied to guide the development and expansion of aquaculture activities in the U.S. in a sustainable manner. In addition, many of the applicable legal and regulatory instruments provide only fragmented coverage for isolated aspects of aquaculture’s environmental implications. As the intensification of U.S. and global aquaculture proceeds, a comprehensive and well-thought out approach to considering, accounting for and addressing the environmental and broader societal impacts of aquaculture is becoming particularly important.

Salmon Farming

Ideally, the relevant knowledge and experience gained in the development of salmon farming over the past three decades would be applied to sustainable aquaculture initiatives designed to improve food security. The aquaculture industry, however, continues to focus on salmon and the development of other carnivorous species, which may be profitable, but are fundamentally unsustainable.